The Prize for Capturing Geronimo, Part II

It may have been winter in 1885-1886, but George Crook was hot under the collar. As the head of the Department of Arizona, the Apache had made life miserable for the renowned "Indian Hunter." He had placed Geronimo and many of his followers on several reservations at different times, but they never stayed around long enough to permit any sort of lasting peace. Geronimo's latest departure, spurred in part by the U.S. Army's inaction to a deliberately provocative act, was especially embarrassing for Crook, who was now being hounded by Washington thanks to the renewed violence of the Chiricahua Apaches. From May 17, 1885 through January 1886, the band of 35 men, 8 boys, and roughly 100 women and children would move almost at will through deserts, canyons, and land considered impassable by most. They would rob and kill settlers, miners, and ranchers as their needs permitted.  They would assault the towns of Alma, Silver City, Grafton, and Camp Vincent. In their 16 month span of freedom they would kill nearly 100 people in total, mostly civilians. Crook had to stop them, and soon.

Standing in his way was the terrain of the Southwest, an unimaginably difficult and desolate landscape. Not only were there burning sands, towers of rock that stretched into the clear desert sky, steep terrain that descended into canyons and rose into mountains, but also an unbearable heat. These difficulties were further magnified by the method of travel which placed stealth and reconnaissance at a premium over speed. Both the conditions and the methods of travel are best detailed in the journal of a Lieutenant Marion P Maus, First Infantry. He writes on the methods of travel:

"In marching the command it was interesting to notice the methods adopted by our Indians in scouting the country to gain information and prevent surprise. It illustrated to us very clearly what we must expect from the hostiles, who would employ the same methods...Their system of advance guards and flankers was perfect, and as soon as the command went into camp, outposts were at once put out, guarding every approach. All this was done noiselessly and in secret, and without giving a single order. As scouts for a command in time of war they would be ideal. Small of stature, and apparently no match physically for the white man, yet when it came to climbing mountains or making long marches, they were swift and tireless...Nothing escaped their watchful eyes as they marched silently in their moccasined feet. By day small fires were built of dry wood to avoid smoke, and at night they were made in hidden places so as to be invisible. If a high point was in view, you could be sure that a scout had crawled to the summit and, himself unseen, with a glass or his keen eyes had searched the ground around."

To read the first-hand accounts of these men is to understand the importance of the Native American scouts and the clever methods utilized by the Apache to remain at large and undetected. The Apache had thought of everything: limiting campfires, locations of campfires, limiting smoke from said campfires, making camp with excellent observation points, ensuring escape routes, placing lookouts, and so on. Maus details the steps taken:

"The march was now conducted mostly by night. We suffered much from the cold, and the one blanket to each man used when we slept was scanty covering. Often it was impossible to sleep at all. At times we made our coffee and cooked our food in the daytime, choosing points where the light could not be seen, and using dry wood to avoid smoke. Our moccasins were thin and the rocks were hard on the feet. Shoes had been abandoned, as the noise made by them could be heard a long distance. The advance scouts kept far ahead. Several abandoned camps of the hostiles were found, the selection of which showed their constant care. They were placed on high points, to which the hostiles ascended in such a way that it was impossible for them to be seen; while in descending any pursuing party would have to appear in full view of the lookout they always kept in the rear. The labor of the Indian women in bringing the water and wood to these points was no apparent objection."

These conditions, documented as harsh to both the white soldiers and their Native American scouts, seemed to pose no trouble to the fugitive Apaches. They hid in the canyons, using them both as concealment and roadways. They fought only when they were at an advantage and by June, they had made their way to the Sierra Madre in Mexico. Crook formed two parties, led by Captain Emmet Crawford and Captain Wirt Davis, and sent them after the renegades that summer. The two groups of men separately chased Geronimo and his band into the autumn. The unbearable heat reached 120 degrees at times, and the sparseness of water and grass made pursuit impossible if not for the supply trains and pack mules. Assistant-Surgeon Leonard Wood, a member of the military detachment, is quoted as saying,

"During the latter part of June and July it was my good fortune to command the infantry. In the detachment of Companies D and K, 8th Infantry, were men who had served in India and South Africa, and, in their opinion, this was by far the hardest and roughest service they had ever seen. Infantry on this expedition marched in drawers and undershirts. I do not remember seeing a pair of blue trousers put on after once wearing the lighter articles mentioned above."

By September, Geronimo had again headed north toward the U.S. border and reports of murderous raiding parties sent shockwaves of fear through the area. Death and stolen livestock were regular occurrences in both New Mexico and Arizona. One Apache band had been stealing horses and mules at will, ending with over 200 animals at the expense of 38 civilian lives. Apaches back on U.S. soil was not something the Federal Government could abide, and the pressure came down even harder on an already frustrated Crook who again sent out Crawford and Davis. Crawford's party would locate them on January 9, 1886. His Lieutenant, Maus, wrote of the  event,

Geronimo, March 27, 1886. Cropped photo of C.S. Fly's original

"The trail was about six days old, and as we passed over it, here and there, the bodies of dead cattle, only partially used, were found...The difficulties of marching over a country like this by night, where it was necessary to climb over rocks and to descend into deep and dark canyons, can hardly be imagined. When we halted, which we sometimes not until midnight, we were sore and tired. We could never move until late in the day, as it was necessary to examine the country a long distance ahead before we started. At last, after a weary march, at sunset on the 9th of January, 1886, Noche, our Indian sergeant-major and guide, sent word that the hostile camp was located twelve miles away. The command was halted, and as the hostiles were reported camped on a high point, well protected and apparently showing great caution on their part, it was decided to make a night march and attack them at daylight... I cannot easily forget that night's march. All night long we toiled on, feeling our way. It was a dark and moonless night. For much of the distance the way led over solid rock, over mountains, down canyons so dark they seemed bottomless. It was a wonder the scouts could find the trail. Sometimes the descent became so steep that we could not go forward, but would have to wearily climb back and find another way. I marched by poor Captain Crawford, who was badly worn out; often he stopped and leaned heavily on his rifle for support, and again he used it for a cane to assist him. He had, however, an unconquerable will, and kept slowly on...We had marched continuously eighteen hours over a country so difficult that when we reached their camp Geronimo said he felt that he had no longer a place where the white man would not pursue him."

Crawford's company attacked at dawn after an exhausting night march. They might have had the element of surprise were it not for some braying burros that the Apaches allegedly used like guard dogs, and that Maus said, "These watchdogs of an Indian camp are better than were the geese of Rome." Then began a short firefight that echoed through the canyons and resulted in the escape of many of the Apache, however in their haste they had left many of their supplies behind, including meat from both deer and ponies. Shortly after, a Native American woman came to the newly claimed camp to arrange a meeting with Geronimo and Natchez, and to beg for food. They agreed to a meeting the next morning by a river about a mile distant.

After a cold sleepless night, the camp awoke to the alarm calls from the scouts. Maus, Lieutenant Shipp, and Tom Horn all ran to see what had caused ruckus, but all they could see were shapes moving about in the fog.  They thought it might be the scouts from Davis' party, but all at once the camp found itself embroiled in another firefight. Crawford's men hesitated to return fire thinking it might be their own men, and so Crawford frantically yelled for the firing to stop. After 15 minutes or so it was over, and it was discovered that the assailants were Mexicans who thought they were attacking the Apache camp. As the commanders of the Americans and Mexicans approached one another to discuss further action, the Americans noticed their own scouts loading weapons and hiding behind rocks.  This was not lost on the Mexicans whose scouts had also taken a nearby ravine to covertly move to a nearby high point that flanked the Americans. Crawford immediately told the scouts to not fire, as did Major Corredor, the Mexican commander. The tension was palpable, life and death hanging heavily by a gossamer thread.

A crack of a single gun shot rang out, and immediately the surrounding rocks exhaled their smoke as .50 cal Sharps carbines and .44 caliber Remington rifles went about their deadly work. The Mexican Major was felled immediately, and his lieutenant was struck 13 times. Two others hid behind a small tree and were killed when the tree was cut down by gunfire. Maus found shelter immediately behind some rocks, but upon doing so, found Crawford "lying with his head pierced by a ball. His brain was running down his face and some of it lay on the rocks." Struck with grief, Maus still gave orders to scouts to prevent the U.S. troops from being flanked. They eventually repelled the Mexicans, and after two tense meetings the two sides traded aid and stock, and went about their way. Despite his grave wounds, Crawford would not pass away for several more days. With his death, Maus was in command and he met with Geronimo 20 miles into Mexican territory on March 25-27, 1886.

Maus, Horn, an interpreter, and five scouts went unarmed into their meeting per Geronimo's conditions. The next day their chiefs arrived with a few men, fully armed, and within minutes of the meeting, Geronimo asked Maus, "Why did you come here?" Maus answered, "I came to capture or destroy you and your band." Geronimo then rose, slowly walked to Maus, and shook his hand, saying that he could trust the man. After some negotiating, Maus arranged for Geronimo to meet Crook to discuss the terms of surrender. The discussion would take place in Cañon de los Embudos (Skeleton Canyon) in the Sierra Madre. Geronimo eventually surrendered with these exasperated words, "Do with me what you please.  Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you, and that is all." It was during these negotiations that photographer C.S. (Camillus Sidney) Fly would take 15 photographs of the Apache men. Using 8x10 inch glass negatives, they are the only photographs of Geronimo's surrender and the only known photographs taken of Native Americans while still at war with the United States.

C.S. Fly's photo of the well-armed Chiricahuan men captioned, "Scene in Geronimo's camp before surrender to General Crook, March 27, 1886: Group in Natches' camp; boys with rifles."

A photo of Fly's captioned "Geronimo poses with members of his tribe and General George Crook's staff during peace negotiations on March 27, 1886."

Captioned: "Geronimo, Yanozha (Geronimos´s brother-in-law), Chappo (Geronimo´s son by his second wife), and Fun (Yanozha´s half brother) (right to left) in 1886." Photo by C. S. Fly

Captioned: ""Scene in Geronimo's camp...before surrender to General Crook, March 27, 1886: group of 18 men, women and children." Photo by C. S. Fly

Women and children in Geronimo's camp during late March 1886. Shown in the photo is 11-year old Jimmy McKinn, who was abducted by the band. He had been kidnapped in September 1885, and "fiercely resisted" returning to his parents despite the fact that the same Apaches had killed his brother. It was reported in more than one newspaper that he had been "fully Indianized."

Crook sent the following message:

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"Camp el Canon de los Embudos, 20 miles SE of San Bernardino, Mexico
March 26, 1886

Lieutenant-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC

I met the hostiles yesterday at Lieut. Maus' camp, they being located about five hundred yards distant. I found them very independent, and fierce as so many tigers. Knowing what pitiless brutes they are themselves, they mistrust everyone else. After my talk with them it seemed as if it would be impossible to get any hold on them, except on condition that they be allowed to return to their reservation on their old status.

Today things look more favorable.

George E. Crook, Brigadier General

---

The following day he sent another message, the first half of which is shown here:

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"Camp el Canon de los Embudos

March 27, 1886

Lieutenant-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC, Confidential

In conference with Geronimo and the other Chiricahuas I told them they must decide at once on unconditional surrender or to fight it out. That in the latter event hostilities should be resumed at once, and the last one of them killed if it took fifty years. I told them to reflect on what they were to do before giving me their answer. The only propositions they would entertain were these three: That they should be sent east for not exceeding two years, taking with them such of their families as so desired, leaving at Apache Nana who is seventy years old and superannuated; or that they should all return to the reservation upon their old status; or else return to the war-path with its attendant horrors.

As I had to act at once I have today accepted their surrender upon the first proposition. Kaetena, the young chief who less than two years ago was the worst Chiricahua of the whole lot, is now perfectly subdued. He is thoroughly reconstructed, has rendered me valuable assistance, and will be of great service in helping to control these Indians in the future..."

George Crook, Brigadier General

---

It was only days later that Crook would find out just how unacceptable these terms were back in Washington.  Sheridan wrote:

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Washington DC, March 30, 1886

General George Crook, Fort Bowie, Arizona

You are confidentially informed that your telegram of March 29th is received. The President cannot assent to the surrender of the hostiles on the terms that their imprisonment last for two years, with the understanding of their return to the reservation. He instructs you to enter into negotiations on the terms of their unconditional surrender, only sparing their lives; in the meantime, and on the receipt of this order, you are directed to take every precaution against the escape of the hostiles, which must not be allowed under any circumstances. You must make at once such disposition of your troops as will insure against further hostilities by completing the destruction of the hostiles unless these terms are accepted.

P.H. Sheridan, Lieut.-Gen.

---

In other words, "You already have them. If they do not comply, kill them all." What happens next is not exactly known to history, but two theories pervade.

1. Liquor. It is known that on the night two parties agreed to the terms of surrender, there was drinking by the Apache. They caused such a ruckus that Maus heard them and the echoing as they fired their guns into the air. The next day, 28 March, everyone moved camp en route to satisfy the terms of the surrender. That afternoon Maus went into their camp and found more drunken behavior and that Natchez (future chief and 2nd son of Chief Cochise) had shot his wife. With that, Crook had all the nearby mescal available for sale destroyed. There were a few more disturbances, but ultimately things settled down. That night Geronimo, Natchez, and 35-38 others had escaped again and headed for Mexico. All of this is documented in Maus's journal.

The rumor is that a soldier (or rancher) who had sold them the mescal (or whiskey) had told them that they would all be slaughtered the minute they crossed the border. The Chiricahua Apache, already supremely wary, needed no further convincing to escape with their lives.


2. "Take your job and..." Crook had obtained surrender yet again on the 27th, but heard back quickly from President Cleveland and General Sheridan in the telegram shown above that the terms were unacceptable. The answering telegram from Crook reads,

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Fort Bowie, A.T., March 30, 1886
Lieut.-Gen. P.H. Sheridan, Washington, DC

A courier just in from Lieut. Maus reports that during last night Geronimo and Natchez with twenty men and thirteen women left his camp, taking no stock. He states that there was no apparent cause for their leaving. Two dispatches received from him this morning reported everything going on well and the Chiricahuas in good spirits. Chihuahua and twelve men remained behind. Lieut. Maus with his scouts, except enough to take the other prisoners to Bowie, have gone in pursuit.

Geo. Crook, Brigadier-General

---

Did Crook "lose" the Apache because of the response from back East? Crook would never commit treason, but he was well-known to be an advocate for the Native Americans and their fair treatment. Was he refusing to renege on their agreed upon surrender? Was he finally giving the finger to his bosses in Washington? Or was it the really the alcohol and threat of annihilation that sent the Apaches packing?  A follow-up telegram from Sheridan seems to indicate which theory they believed.

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Washington, DC, March 31, 1886
General George Crook, Fort Bowie, A.T.

Your dispatch of yesterday received. It has occasioned great disappointment. It seems strange that Geronimo and party could have escaped without the knowledge of the scouts.

P.H. Sheridan, Lieut.-General

---

A brief exchange occurred where Crook explained the situation and Sheridan writes back a very backhanded communication giving Crook some very unnecessarily basic strategies to follow and including guilt-inducing phrases like "Geronimo will undoubtedly enter upon other raids of murder and robbery..." It was no secret that Sheridan, at odds with most military minds on the matter, did not approve of Crook's use of Native American scouts, and so Crook, clearly agitated, in a final telegraph after defending his actions yet again, wrote the following:

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Fort Bowie, A.T., April 1, 1886

Lieut.-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC

"...That the operations of the scouts in Mexico have not proven as successful as was hoped, is due to the enormous difficulties they have been compelled to encounter from the nature of the Indians they have been hunting, and the character of the country in which they have operated, and of which persons not thoroughly conversant with both can have no conception. I believe that the plan upon which I have conducted operations is the one most likely to prove successful in the end. It may be, however, that I am too much wedded to my own views in this matter, and as I have spent nearly eight years of the hardest work in my life in this department, I respectfully request that I may now be relieved from its command.

George Crook, Brigadier-General

---

Nelson Appleton Miles during his Civil War service

Sheridan was only too happy to oblige, sending word the very next day to General N.A. Miles that he would be relieving Crook as commander of the Department of Arizona, very much a surprise to Miles. Even though Crook had just quit his job, he still wrote Sheridan in reference to allowing the 80 or so Apache that remained to continue on to their reservation. Sheridan would have none of it. He reasoned that since Geronimo had broken the terms of surrender, he was under no obligation to do anything except to treat the Apache as prisoners and send them to Fort Marion (known today as Castillo de San Marcos in Ft. Lauderdale, FL). Crook was out and Miles was in.  His orders: capture or kill.

Miles had long been in contention with Crook as the country's top Indian Fighter. He had a stellar service record in the Civil War, being wounded three times and earning a Medal of Honor. He was flamboyant, earned the name "Old Bear Coat" because of his fur-trimmed overcoat, and had high aspirations. He even married well, politically speaking, to the daughter of Gen. William T. Sherman, and undoubtedly saw the task before him as another rung in the ladder of promotions that he strove to climb. Miles personally selected Captain Henry Ware Lawton to lead the primary chase, a man imposing in height, a handsome appearance, and who Miles described as "...a man of great energy and endurance." He would need every last bit of it for the task ahead. Lawton was paired with assistant surgeon Leonard Wood and the two became quick friends.

Lawton in the late 1870's.

Miles immediately ordered troops to guard every waterhole and pass known to be used by the Apaches. In a spiteful act, he sent the scouts who had fought so effectively with Crook along with the surrendered Apaches to be exiled in Florida. It had the intended effect; Crook never forgave the man. Miles also set to work the mountains and unrelenting sun that had opposed the pursuing troops for so long by setting up a heliograph system. From the Greek words for "sun" and "write," Heliographs consisted of a system of mirrors mounted on surveying equipment that were then positioned on geographic high points that could flash signals to one another. The messages would then be forwarded on to subsequent outposts and a message could travel a great distance very quickly. One message was recorded to have traveled approximately 700 miles in four hours, and 30 such stations were positioned throughout Arizona and northern Sonora. Whether the Apaches knew their significance or assumed they were some sort of spirit or magic is unknown, but the fact they they avoided those flashing mountain tops is well documented.

Perhaps the most effective tactic used by Miles was the sheer number of men used. Crook had spared no expense, but Miles went overboard. 5,000 troops were summoned, over double the amount used by Crook, 100 mules, 30 packers, and a number of new Native American scouts that sources cite anywhere between 20 and 600 scouts (again supervised by Chief of Scouts Tom Horn). Regardless the exact numbers, it mattered little. Geronimo and his 35-38 Apaches were raiding, killing, and moving unabated. Arizona was in a panic. Like a bad children's game of "telephone" the numbers of his band and the death toll rose each time the stories were retold. By July he had returned to the depths of the Sierra Madre to recuperate, where pursuit would be more difficult.

That whole time Lawton and his men had been in a fruitless chase. Scouting and marching were exhausting in the desert heat, but they soldiered on and seldom gave their quarry a worthwhile rest. Lawton himself lost 40 pounds reducing his robust frame to a slender 190 pounds. Despite the tremendous hardship that lay at the feet of the soldiers, Lawton remained popular with his men. One soldier, Alfred Sims, wrote, "To his men a kinder officer never lived, and the one thing that made him so popular was that he would never send any one to a place where he would not go himself." Several skirmishes between the two forces are recorded in the firsthand account of Major G. W. Baird. He describes the chase as follows,

"The trail was taken up in succession, by twenty-five different commands or detachments, representing four regiments... This vigorous pursuit and the five encounters with different commands convinced the Indians that Arizona afforded them no place of security, and they hurried from its borders to the supposed inaccessible fastnesses of the Sierra Madre in Mexico. Though the contests of forces so small may not merit the name of battle, yet in no battle have the participants incurred greater risks or evinced a higher degree of heroism... Through such a region and with such drafts upon the strength and fortitude of the men this force kept up the pursuit during the intolerable heat of that summer of ‘86, and with such steadfastness and skill that no craft or device of the savages could throw them off the trail or secure to the pursued an hour’s respite. "

In July Lawton's men surprised Geronimo's camp, but only recovered their horses and supplies. Not long after the Apache returned the surprise and killed 5 soldiers in the process. Miles' vision of a quick victory was evaporating in the Arizona sun. To that end, he decided a change in tactic was necessary. His previous command had been, "Commanding officers are expected to continue a pursuit until capture or until they are assured a fresh command is on the trail.” Now he decided that perhaps Crook's tactics had some validity to them after all. On July 13, 1886 he sent 1st Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood to accompany Lawton and obtain Geronimo's surrender. Gatewood had been an aide to Crook, whose experience included West Point and time with the 6th Cavalry. More importantly he spoke some Apache, valued their customs, and was already known to Geronimo, having met with the leader on several prior occasions. This shift from "pursue and capture" to "obtain surrender" initially miffed Lawton who knew the immense efforts he and his men had undertaken, but he eventually accepted the new tactic, perhaps realizing it as the best way to complete the mission at hand.

It was late August when Gatewood, accompanied by two scouts and 25 men, began probing the edges of the Sierra Madre for information on the whereabouts of the Apache. It didn't take long for word to reach him about Apache women being sent into the small Mexican town of Frontéras to buy mescal. The Mexicans were hoping to use the situation to their advantage to trick the band into coming into town to massacre them, but Gatewood had other plans. He, his scouts, and half his men followed one of the Apache women as she returned to their camp. The scouts, far ahead of the rest of the group, were seen and met by a brave to permit them passage. One scout was kept for assurances and the other was sent back saying that Geronimo would meet, but with no troops. Taking the small loophole available, Gatewood proceeded to the meeting but brought along his remaining scout.

Gatewood had brought a healthy supply of tobacco in his saddle bags and before long he was sitting and smoking in part of a large semi-circle that had found itself near the bank of the Bavispe River. Several sources cite Geronimo as setting his rifle down 20 feet away from Gatewood before shaking his hand and sitting in part of the circle. However, he sat so close that Gatewood could easily feel the revolver in Geronimo's coat pocket pressing into his hip. Geronimo, an apt spokesman though not the chief, stated that they were ready for the message from Miles. Gatewood got right to brass tacks.















"Surrender, and you will be sent with your families to Florida, there to await the decision of the President as to your future disposition.  Accept these terms or fight it out to the bitter end."

The Apache were silent a while, and then expressed their desire to be placed back on the reservation and to receive an exemption from further punishment.  Otherwise, Geronimo said, they would continue to fight. Gatewood, being an honest ambassador, said that he could offer nothing more than Miles' proposal and to do so would only serve to worsen the situation. They continued to talk, with Gatewood continuing for impress on the Apache the consequences for each of their potential options. Fighting would bring death. Running now and surrendering later would bring harsher terms. By then it was noon and the meeting stopped for the midday meal. After eating, Geronimo seemingly on the edge of fury, demanded of Gatewood, "Take us to the reservation - or fight!" Nachez calmed the situation, and Gatewood relayed one final piece of news: all the other Chiricahua Apaches had already been moved to Florida.

The effect of the news was immediate. They were shocked,  and had assumed they could still join their families at the reservation. Now there was no hope for such a reunion. Even if they went back to the reservation, they would be with other Apache tribes with whom they were not on good terms. Their fighting spirit deflated, the Chiricahuas spoke privately for a moment, before Geronimo asked him quite earnestly, "We want your advice. Consider yourself not a white man, but one of us; remember all that has been said today and tell us what we should do." Gatewood replied, "Trust General Miles and surrender to him." By then evening had fallen and the Chiricahuas agreed to meet in the morning with their final decision. The news was exactly what Lawton had been hoping to hear. With several stipulations to ensure their safety along the way, Geronimo's band agreed to meet with Miles to discuss surrender. The date was August 25, 1886, and they all left together that day, headed for the U.S. border.

Despite the great importance to all parties involved the meeting almost never happened. The Apaches remained armed, citing the need to protect themselves from Mexican troops until they were safely in the U.S., and from the U.S. troops until a surrender was peaceably reached. The very first day, those concerns were proven well founded when the Apache and their escort were approached by the Mexican commander located in Frontéras and 200 infantry soldiers who were claiming rights to capture the Apache. Lawton spoke with them, while Gatewood took the Apache some 10 miles North to await the results of the matter. After several Mexican demands were declined by both the Apache and the U.S. troops, the Mexicans had to settle to send along a single soldier with the group to ensure that Geronimo was indeed surrendering to the Americans. This was a bold and honorable move on Lawton's part. His men were outnumbered, outgunned, and they were on Mexican soil, but he had given his word as an officer to protect the Apache and he intended to see it through. They traveled through Guadalupe Canyon to the San Bernadino Valley until they reached Skeleton Canyon

That encounter set the tone for a extremely tense trip. Much weighed on the men in charge of this mission. If they failed, the reaction from Washington would be anything but favorable. If they succeeded, certainly promotions and fame awaited. So many before them had failed, how would they succeed?  The end of their journey was so close, but the Apache remained fully armed and had a nasty penchant for escaping into the nearly inaccessible Sierra Madre.  Exacerbating the tension, Miles refused to meet at the appointed time and place for nine days. The Apache grew even more suspicious and wary than usual. Lawton and Gatewood pleaded with them and soothed them over and over again. On several occasions the Chiricahua Apaches asked Gatewood if he would run away with them (sources differ on whether this was to resume a life of raiding, or to continue on toward Ft. Bowie to meet with Miles themselves). Lawton wrote his anxious letters to his wife of his predicament. A rumor reached Geronimo that he would be killed, and they took off, but they were not gone long before Gatewood reached them and assured them of their safety. Finally on September 3, 1886 Miles arrived, only after having been sent Geronimo's brother as a hostage, and met with Gatewood and Lawton.

The very next day, Geronimo and Nachez agreed on the terms of surrender, and by September 8, they were on an eastbound train headed for Florida. The reign in the West was at an end. It had taken over 5,000 white men, 3 years, and two generals, but finally Geronimo and his band of around three dozen had succumbed to the relentless waves of white men from the East crashing into his desert realm.

The Rifle

Lieut. George E. Albe

Upon the surrender, there was much rejoicing on both coasts of the country. The higher ups in Washington and the military had gotten their man and could finally silence those crying out for a resolution. The people of Arizona and New Mexico were also able to breathe a sigh of relief for their safety and the security of their livestock. The news traveled quickly across the country and it would not take long before it reached the ears of Lieutenant George E. Albee.  Lawton and Albee had served together in the Civil War and become life long personal friends, though while the former's service continued until mere days before the 20th century, the latter's ended in 1878 when he retired from the Army. After his duties there, Albee resumed his strong interest in firearms.  He went to work for Winchester Repeating Arms and became a man of some influence there, helping to develop the Hotchkiss rifle and receiving no less than two patents. He also developed a sizable firearms collection and, having been a crack shot since his service in the Civil War, went on to win many shooting competitions.

This dear and close friend of Lawton, presented Lawton with the lever action rifle shown throughout this story, Model 1886, serial number 1.

Perhaps telling that the gift is between two military men, the gun is not bathed in precious metals or covered with elaborate engraving. On the contrary, the gun remains quite handsome in its original configuration, and in near mint condition. The case hardening is vivid and is still abundant even on the buttplate.

Understated for such a historic event, the gun is marked in tribute only by a small inscription behind the rear sight on top of the octagon barrel that reads, "Albee to Lawton." It is a simple, but heartfelt gift for a man who struggled mightily for months, but never at the expense of his dignity, honor, nor duty.

In a letter dated November 1, 1886 and addressed to "My Dear Albee," Lawton speaks of a banquet in his honor in Albuquerque. He did not want to attend, but was ordered to do so by Miles. There Lawton was presented with what he calls, "a handsome and valuable pocket watch," shown below. It was made by E. Howard & Co. in Boston, and is engraved with a message from a grateful people that reads,

Presented to

Capt. H.W. Lawton

4th U.S. Cavalry

By the Cattlemen of Central New Mexico

as a token of their appreciation of his

gallant service in the capture of the 

Apache Indian Chief 

~ Geronimo ~

and his band.

Albuquerque, New Mexico

Sept. 27th, 1886

Lawton was also presented with a watch chain (shown above), every link of which is inscribed with the names of men who accompanied him during the chase of Geronimo. The rifle, the watch, and the chain are all to be sold in a single lot during Rock Island Auction Company's 2016 April Premiere Firearms Auction.

Appearing in the same auction, although in a different lot, is a regal Horstman & Son/Weyerberg sword presented to Lawton. As one can see in the photo above it is an Damascus bladed Officers sword covered in etchings and gold portraying patriotic and floral motifs. The scabbard and furniture are intricately sculpted to match. The center band of the scabbard is inscribed to Lawton and reads, "Lt. Col. Henry W. Lawton/From the Officers and men of the/30th Indiana Infantry Regt. Vol./ February 10, 1865." The tip and upper bands of the scabbard have been inscribed but instead document Lawton's extensive battle record beginning at Shiloh and continuing on through the battle of Nashville. It is another stunning testimony to a man who was clearly beloved by his men regardless of his rank or the conflict in which he fought. He was a man not without his flaws, he battled with alcoholism and his military performance is generally not considered stellar, however author Steven L Ossad best sums him up as such,

"In the end, however, his core strengths as a soldier and a man—a strong personal code of honor, unflinching loyalty to his comrades and they to him, cool personal courage under fire, extraordinary physical endurance, and good will towards his fellow man—overshadowed his flaws. In several notable instances, even those who were once his enemies came to regard him with respect."





-Written by Joel R. Kolander

SOURCES:

Capps, Benjamin. The Old West: The Great Chiefs. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life, 1981. Print.

Lockwood, Frank C. The Apache Indians. New York: MacMillan, 1938. Print.

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Capt_Maus.html

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Crook_Miles.html

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Miles_Geronimo.html

http://www.southernnewmexico.com/Articles/People/Geronimossurrender-Skelet.html

Ossad, Steven L. "Henry Ware Lawton: Flawed Giant and Hero of Four Wars." Army History Winter 2007: 4-25. Web. <http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/articles/article_from_AH63w.pdf>

The Prize for Capturing Geronimo, Part I

This incredible rifle will be available in our 2016 April Premiere Auction.

Lieutenant Colonel George Crook was not having a good time. Everything should have been falling in to place.  He was a nationally recognized military man whose career included decades of service. He was a renowned "Indian fighter," having moved many Native American groups off their lands when such activities were considered desirable. Though, even among the Native Americans he was  revered among them as a white man they could trust. Crook respected Native Americans, viewed them as honorable warriors, and after removing a tribe treated them humanely, helped them grow crops, and even found some employment. This was in line with the view of those who saw reservations as essential to the long-term survival of the Native Americans. Red Cloud, Chief of the Lakota, is noted as saying, "Crook never lied to us. His words gave the people hope." He was even honorably nicknamed Nantan Lupan by the Apache, which translates as "gray wolf." Besides his superior reputation on both sides of the Indian Wars, Crook also enjoyed professional success. He was promoted numerous times throughout his career, peaking as the head of the Department of Arizona.

Despite all that, he couldn't seem to nail down one final loose end: Geronimo.

Geronimo

Geronimo, 1887

The wily leader of the Apache lost his entire family, mother, wife, and three children, after they were slain by Mexicans months shy of his 22nd birthday, thus kindling a lifelong hatred for the country and its people. After grieving his family, he was a changed man. Once an amicable husband and doting father, he became understandably bitter and unpredictably violent. Many former friends avoided him completely, and his need to spill Mexican blood grew to obsession. It resulted in numerous revenge raids and perpetuated the constant violence that already existed between the Apaches and Mexicans dating back to the late 17th century. In the years between 1820 - 1835 Apaches killed more than 5,000 Mexicans and demolished roughly 100 villages, causing several Mexican states to place a bounty on Apache scalps in 1835, offering 100 pesos (the the equivalent of one silver dollar) for the scalp of a brave. Later, Chihuahua offered even greater rewards: $100 for braves, with lesser amounts for (presumably alive) women and children. Prices would increase and decrease as conflicts heated and cooled, though $100 was already more than some men could earn in a year.  Not to mention that one could often keep the goods and livestock of the Native Americans one killed.  All this further fueled the conflict, bloodshed, and distrust between Mexicans, Americans, and the Apache.

While Geronimo's feud initially existed largely with the Mexicans, it's not difficult to see how that violence spilled over to those early settlers and travelers in the Southwestern United States. Mexicans weren't the only ones collecting scalp bounties, plus the whites were also busy settling on Apache lands. Regardless of who was killing who, or who was turning in human scalps as casually as trapped pelts, the violence against American citizens was something the Federal Government could not abide. While the market for Native American scalps (or those claimed to be) had largely dried up by the 1880s, the memories and hatred were still fresh as ever. This was the setting that Crook inherited in 1882 (some say the spring of 1883) as head of the Department of Arizona.

Crook

George R. Crook, circa 1875

Crook had ascended the ranks in his time of military service. He had performed nobly in dozens of engagements in the Civil War, and already had a fine reputation against Indians after his performance in the Snake War, the Tonto Basin Campaign, and the Great Sioux War of 1876-77. Prior to his posting of supervising an entire state, he served as the head of the Department of the Platte from 1875 - 1882. In that role he oversaw Nebraska, the Dakota Territory, the Utah Territory, Iowa, and part of Idaho. He also helped conquered tribes on numerous occasions by speaking on their behalf in Washington, setting up irrigation projects, finding jobs, ensuring equal pay for Native American workers, and seeking markets for their newly grown crops. All this in spite of a large segment of the population that wanted all Native Americans dead, and a military supply industry that profited the most when Native Americans were hostile.

 However, Crook also had his failures, though arguably of lesser consequence. After being nominated to the United States Military Academy by his congressman, he graduated near the bottom of his class. At the Battle of Cloyd's Mountain in the Civil War, while attempting to cross a creek, his high topped riding boots filled with water, and he became swamped, requiring his men to pull him by his arms to the opposite shore. Later that battle, some sources say he became so fatigued with excitement and exertion that he grew faint and was unable to mount a successful pursuit of Confederate sources, that duty then fell to future President Rutherford B. Hayes. He would be captured by Confederate forces in 1865. Even in his finest hour, the Snake War, after ordering a charge on an Indian village from his safe vantage point, his horse spooked and ran ahead of his own troops, placing him squarely in the cross fire of both forces. Thankfully his horse continued through the village and both horse and rider emerged unscathed.  Perhaps most damning, is that some historians still debate whether Crook's failure to pursue the Sioux and Cheyenne forces at the Battle of the Rosebud, contributed to the massacre of the 7th Cavalry at the Battle of the Little Bighorn - a far greater consequence than some waterlogged boots.

Which Crook would show up to drive the Apache from the Southwest United States: the successful rising star or the embarrassed soldier with the devil's own luck?

The Game is Afoot

A cavalry patrol leaving Ft. Bowie.

Crook did plenty to help the Native Americans when he wasn't kicking them off their land and working to place them in reservations.  He developed several tactics that were successful for decades.  The first was his use of Native American scouts of the tribe he was pursuing. Utilizing the knowledge of native peoples to navigate was nothing new, but using Native American's knowledge against their own people was.  Those scouts not only had the potential to serve as translators, but also knew of their people's routes, clandestine camps, and how the tribe was trained to avoid detection. They proved themselves to be an invaluable asset time and time again. Crook also was known for his heavy use of pack animals, especially mules. By keeping the majority of supplies on the pack animals, his cavalry could travel lighter, faster, and farther. He hoped to use these same tactics to capture Geronimo when charged with the task in 1883.

Geronimo had been placed on a reservation before. When the Chiricahua Apache were under command of Cochise, they had made peace and agreed to relocate to a reservation. Not long after that arrangement, Cochise died in 1874.  Without the cooperation of Cochise things began to spiral out of control. After the sale of whiskey to some Apaches resulted in the death of two white men in 1876, the U.S. decided to dissolve the reservation in the Chiricahua Mountains and move its inhabitants to the San Carlos reservation in southeast Arizona, also known as "Hell's Forty Acres." A great number made the move, almost 4,000, but many escaped with Geronimo to Mexico. Those that stayed were subject to the treachery of those in charge of their welfare. Rations were shorted, but charged the same to the government, scales were tampered with during the sale of goods, and the reservation, originally totaling some 5,000 square miles, was gradually made smaller and smaller by whites who kept finding things they wanted along its border, such as silver, copper, and coal.  The very next year, 1877, Geronimo surrendered at the Ojo Caliente Reservation in the New Mexico Territory, but a change in management of the reservation, brought about by ego-driven politics in the U.S. Army, resulted in his release. He returned once, in 1880, out of necessity after a long, hungry winter in the Sierra Madres, but his stay would be a short one. After a spiritual leader was arrested and the resulting riot was initially quelled, Geronimo heard rumors that he would also be arrested or worse, and so stole away again into Mexico with 74 others. In the following two years, he and his band took part in increasingly bold and violent raids, stealing property, and killing residents including women and children. It was these atrocities that lead the U.S. and Mexico to a compromise that allowed each nation's lawmen/troops to cross one another's borders when in "hot pursuit" of the outlaw Apaches.

Once placed in charge and the recent accord with Mexico in place, it didn't take Crook long to locate Geronimo. He took 193 Native American scouts with him, and first hand accounts mention Tom Horn serving as an interpreter on the trek though the boulder and crevasse strewn desert landscape of the Sierra Madre. Many Apache were convinced to return to the San Carlos reservation, but Geronimo and others did not return until the next year, 1884. Once on the reservation Crook began treating the Apache civilly and implementing programs to benefit their stay, but the surrounding communities saw the treatment and felt it was too kind for a group that had raided their cattle, plundered their lands, and killed their friends and neighbors.

Printed on Back of Photo: "Scene in Geronimo's camp, the Apache outlaw and murderer. Taken before the surrender to Gen. Crook, March 27, 1886, in the Sierra Madre mountains of Mexico, escaped March 30, 1886."

This photo of Geronimo and his men was taken by C.S. Fly. His 15 images of the Apache are the only known photographs taken of an American Indian while they were still at war with the U.S.

This atmosphere was combined with whites trying to remove several brutal Apache practices from the reservation, such as cutting the nose tips off of unfaithful women, what one source calls "vicious wife-beating," but most importantly a prohibition on alcohol. Mixed together, all these things compelled Geronimo to act out by brewing a small batch of corn-based beer to protest the conditions. Instead of a reaction, Geronimo received no response at all due a communication error in the Army involving an extremely hungover officer. Geronimo and his band waited, waited, and waited some more before finally growing tired of their staged act and leaving the reservation. All in all 42 men and 92 women and children escaped. As the escapees made their way south again toward the inhospitable lands that made them nearly impossible to capture, they gathered supplies. One unfortunate family in their path was that of a man known only to history as "Phillips."

Phillips owned a ranch outside Silver City and the Apache badly needed supplies for their journey. It is not specifically mentioned, but little doubt can exist that Phillips would not have been too keen on giving up his food and stock.  Unfortunately, it cost him and his family their lives. When a posse arrived, his wife and infant child were found dead, but Phillips' five-year old daughter was hanging by a meat hook that had been plunged into the base of her skull.  She was still alive, a condition that would last only hours.

Crook was furious at the renewed violence and the incompetence of the men responsible for not responding to Geronimo's insubordination. It would be no small task to capture an Apache that didn't want to be caught, especially an angered one. If Crook didn't already feel the urgency of the situation, the strong pressure of the U.S. Government to again rein in the Apaches was nearly crushing. Perhaps it was Crook's anger and perhaps it was his knowledge of the arduous task that lay before him, but he wasted no time assembling the largest force up to that time in the Apache Wars: some 20 cavalry companies, more than 200 Native American scouts, dozens of pack animals, and extra surgeons; over 3,000 men in total.

The hunt for Geronimo was on.

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Part II of this story continues here

-Written by Joel R. Kolander




SOURCES:

Capps, Benjamin. The Old West: The Great Chiefs. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life, 1981. Print.

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Capt_Maus.html

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Crook_Miles.html (1st hand account of Crook)

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Miles_Geronimo.html (Miles, Lawton's boss)

http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/hns/scalpin/oldfolks.html

Rock Island Arsenal: Origin

The Rock Island Arsenal has long been a seat of the locale known as the Quad Cities Area.  Those few acres of land, nestled in the topographical ribbon that is the Mississippi River, bear the origin of the area's settlement and are literally at the center of the community to this day.  However there were more than a few players vying for the vast tracts of land that surrounded this geographical speck.  The first of course were the Native Americans.

The Sauk (also Sac) and Meskwaki (also "Fox") tribes were prevalent in the area, and a large Sauk village was located just five miles downstream of the island, right where the Rock River finally spills into the Mississippi.  Sauk leader Black Hawk fondly recounts the island as a summer hotspot for both tribes.

"It was our garden, like the white people have near their big villages, which supplied us with strawberries, blackberries, gooseberries, plums, apples, and nuts of different kinds.  Being situated at the foot of the rapids, its waters supplied us with the finest fish.  In my early life I spent many happy days on this island.  A good spirit had charge of it, which lived in a cave in the rocks immediately under the place where the fort now stands.  This guardian spirit has often been seen by our people.  It was white, with large wings like a swan's, but ten times larger."

"Sauk & Meskwaki Indians" by Karl Bodmer

History on the Mississippi

Unfortunately, the land would soon be viewed as important by many different nationalities and for numerous reasons.  The first mentions of the island predate the American Revolution and describe a "big island" at the bend of the Mississippi past the "upper rapids."  This was found in documents from French and French-Canadian traders, who were the first in the area seeking to earn their riches trading furs and seeking the easiest route with which to do so.  Also called "voyageurs," they would travel in "North Canoes" that measured up to 20 feet in length and could carry upwards of a ton of cargo in addition to the eight men required to propel and steer such a vessel.

By 1763, France had been pushed out of the region thanks to the French & Indian War, one of many early conflicts in American history that remains covered in a thick layer of dust.  Those results brought in a new trading partner, the British, though some French remained behind and continued to make their living with the victors.  The local tribes didn't seem to care so long as the trading remained good and their European partners kept providing them with the customary gifts that often accompanied trades to grease the wheels of good relations.  As the name of the previous conflict suggests, Native Americans took sides in more than a few conflicts between European nations.

"Voyageur canoe" by Frances Anne Hopkins -  Licensed under Public Domain

By 1783 the American Revolution was over and the Treaty of Paris had been signed, ceding massive areas of land from the British to the newly founded United States of America.  Known as the Northwest Territory, it included the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. Much like the defeated French in the previous decade the British couldn't quite give up their profitable trade with the Native Americans.  In fact, they outright refused.  From Canada they continued business on a much larger scale than the vanquished French, all the while undermining their American competition.  As if that weren't enough, they also began to provide arms and ammunition to local tribes who began to organize in order to halt the steady Westward flow of white settlers.  Battles took place, as they would countless times in the century to follow, but it mattered little.  There was no stopping Manifest Destiny.  Even if the Native Americans tried to settle peacefully with the government, a treaty would be drawn up to establish lines that ultimately involved Native Americans sacrificing some of their homeland.  It would last until settlers pushed past those boundaries, a new treaty would be drawn up, and the leapfrogging boundaries would continue to push the Native Americans out of any land they ever knew as home.

Boiling Point

In 1800, Spain quietly "gave" back to France 828,000 square miles of land with more than a little coersion applied by Napoleon Bonaparte, who had visions of extending his empire to the new continent.  President Thomas Jefferson, alarmed at the prospect, began to acquire as much land as possible to help thwart the efforts of the "Little Corporal."  To hedge those efforts he even began secret negotiations with France to purchase the land recently ceded to them by Spain.  Treaty after treaty was being signed with various tribes of Native Americans and each one added to the mass of the rapidly growing nation.  Napoleon, in an effort to raise some much needed finance, eventually sold the desired land to Jefferson in 1803 in the famous "Louisiana Purchase."  The lone holdouts in this string of successes were the Sauk and Fox tribes.  Not only were they not interested in selling their land, they wouldn't even attend meetings with the whites.  Jefferson viewed their land as essential since it included the Mississippi River from Prairie du Chien, WI all the way down to St. Louis.  Something had to give.

The Louisiana Purchase ensured that the "Mighty Mississip" was no longer the westernmost border of the United States; now it was an important artery of transportation for trade and travelers alike.  Americans officially owned the land as of March 10, 1804 and that created some tricky political situations for the Native Americans.  In September of that year, things got even trickier when Sauk hunters killed three white men who had settled illegally on tribal land.  It was the worst possible action for the two tribes.  The deaths panicked the whites, who were now demanding protection from the government, and also struck the fear of retaliation into their own people, who were forced to abandon their southern-most villages and move north of the Des Moines River.

William H. Harrison by Remington Peale

Earlier that year, President Thomas Jefferson had charged Indiana Governor (and future 9th U.S. President) William Henry Harrison with acquiring as much land as possible.  Harrison was infamously well-suited to his task using almost any means necessary to procure new territory: liquor, threats, bribery, and broken promises were his tools of the trade.  The killing of white settlers by the Sauk put the tribe exactly where he wanted them.  It forced them to the bargaining table and put him in a position of strength.  Before he could act on his new bargaining chip, two Sauk village chiefs came to St. Louis to publicly condemn the killings.  They didn't want a few bad apples to spoil the relations of the many.  It isn't mentioned if the Americans accepted the apology, but their demands to present the murderers certainly are.  Shortly after returning to their villages with the demands of the Americans, Harrison sent falsely urgent messages to each tribe stating that if they didn't bring the murderers to St. Louis, he feared retaliation against the tribes.  He then traveled to St. Louis to meet with many other tribes, bestowing them gifts.  As if that weren't Machiavellian enough, he then lavished the rival tribe of the Osage with an even more impressive selection of gifts plus offers of friendship and protection.  In just under a fortnight, five leaders (minor chiefs) of the tribes, four Sauk and one Fox, brought one of the killers to St. Louis along with compensation for the victims' families, a common practice known as "covering the dead."  Pay the families of the dead, and if the payment is accepted, no revenge could be sought.  They were also there to make friends with the Americans and to arrange an alliance that might help protect them from the Osage.

Treaty of 1804: The Devious Deal

Harrison quickly reverted to his tried and true tactics.  He got the tribal delegates drunk, asked for land, and made promises of friendship and protection by the Americans as well as sweeping these unpleasant murders under the rug.  The shifty governor knew that the men present had no authority to make such an agreement.  A process was in place for such arrangements that involved much formality, in addition to feedback and participation from the tribes.  This was the equivalent of a back-alley fleecing.  When it was all said and done the Treaty of 1804 sold a massive plot of 52 million acres to the Americans, including both Sauk villages on the Rock River as well as the island known by then as Rock Island.  For this, the Native Americans would receive $2,234.50 in goods, annual payments of $1,000 in goods, an American to teach them how to farm, and the release of the prisoner brought to St. Louis.  If that doesn't sound like enough of a swindle on a massive scale, Harrison had only just begun.

Map of the territory acquired from the Sauk and Fox in the Treaty of 1804
 as prepared by Ernest Royce. In Wisconsin, the acquisition stopped
 at the Wisconsin River. Map by Karen Everingham.

The minor chiefs who had made the agreement were not unfamiliar with alcohol.  They had been trading with Europeans for over a century, after all.  However, it was a European custom to provide gifts during a trade to keep relations smooth.  Knowing this, the delegates may have thought the alcohol a gift from their "American father."  They must have been sorely surprised when the $2,234 they were to receive as payment for their lands was instead given to a well-to-do French trader as payment for expenses incurred.  The Frenchman, Pierre Chouteau, also served as witness to the signed treaty.  In a final insult, the freed Sauk prisoner was shot down while running from his captors.  Despite being skilled and friendly negotiators with the Europeans, the two tribes were double-crossed in every way imaginable by Harrison.  It was the beginning of some very bad blood and sowed the seeds for what would become the Black Hawk War.

Rise of Rock Island

Zebulon Pike

The Treaty of 1804 brought the fabulously named Lieutenant Zebulon Pike (after whom Pike's Peak is named) to Rock Island in 1805.  His expedition was charged with, among other things, gathering information about the river and to seek the best possible strategic locations for forts to help tame the newly acquired territory.  By 1809, Congress has passed legislation to set aside Rock Island as one of the sites for a federal military installation.  Needless to say that Pike's presence was not welcome on the "big island," as he called it, nor was that of any white man.  The Sauk and Fox had warred with many other tribes to establish their lands.  They were tremendous warriors and while they didn't engage in guerrilla warfare or raids against the whites, it wouldn't take long for them to find their opportunity for vengeance.

The War of 1812

Without going too much into the War of 1812 and what it meant for America, the Sauk and Fox saw it as an opportunity to fight against the Americans.  Allegedly, in an attempt to honor the scandalous Treaty of 1804, the Sauk warrior Black Hawk offered the tribe's allegiance at Fort Madison, but was refused.  This, combined with the Americans refusal to offer them credit, a privilege commonly offered by Europeans, made the Sauk more than receptive when the British came to trade.  Credit was extremely important to the Native Americans in order to purchase vital winter supplies.  For their kindness, the British sent a secret message to Black Hawk urging him to gather a war party and meet the British in Green Bay.  Throughout the War of 1812 the two were allies who supported one another while the Sauk and Fox also harassed targets of opportunity.  The Sauk and Fox, led by Black Hawk, enjoyed victories at islands both south (Credit Island) and north (Campbells Island) of Rock Island.  Even after the war, loyalty to Britain among their allied Native American tribes remained high.

An editorial cartoon encouraging Americans to fight

The recent absence of the defeated British and their forts, plus the continuing hostilities with Native Americans gave the Americans great incentive to locate forts at strategic points.  In 1816, 11 years after Pike had set foot there, Fort Armstrong was established on Rock Island.  It provided an important checkpoint in the Mississippi River, and was able to keep the military close to the problematic Sauk and Fox tribes, who were still angry at the Treaty of 1804 and its consequences.  It was the first permanent settlement in the area and because of the safety it provided, also allowed a hub of commerce and economy to gain a foothold.  The surnames of those earliest businessmen still dot the map today as local towns such as Davenport and LeClaire.  The fort also sent a signal to the French, English, & Canadians to remind them that this was now American soil, no matter how recently it became so.

Fort Armstrong

This model of Fort Armstrong is currently on display at the local Putnam Museum.

The fort was situated at the west tip of Rock Island giving it a superior ability to monitor each channel of the Mississippi River that swept around it.  Fort Armstrong, being on the very edge of the island, only required that the 8th U.S. Infantry build two walls to cordon off the area, which were partly formed by the forts barracks, blockhouses, and storehouses.  The 30-foot natural limestone bluffs that were the western bank of the island were considered an adequate deterrent to anyone wishing to assault the fort from that direction.

This map of the fort is in the same display as the above model at the Putnam Museum and lists out the different buildings.

The fort's construction, save for the limestone cliff, was fairly standard construction for the time.  The blockhouses used interlocking square timbers peppered with a more than adequate number of embrasures so that muskets could be fired by inhabitants and attackers outside the buildings.  The second stories of the blockhouses were also constructed at a diagonal to the first story to eliminate "blind spots" in the fields of fire of the occupants.  This is very similar to Spanish forts or castles which often used angled bastions to allow their cannons interlocking fields of fire.  It turns out that comparisons of Fort Armstrong to castles is not completely unfounded, as is relayed in a 1932 article from The Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society that quotes one of Illinois Governor Thomas Ford describing the fort as such,

"Rock Island, was then in a complete state of nature, a romantic wilderness.  Fort Armstrong was built upon a rocky cliff on the lower point of an island, near the center of the river... (a traveler) on the voyage upstream after several days solitary progress through a wilderness country...came suddenly in sight of the whitewashed walls and towers of the fort, perched upon a rock , surrounded by the grandeur and beauty of nature, which at a distance gave it the appearance of one of those enchanted castles... so well described in the Arabian Nights Entertainments!"

1819 map of Rock Island.  Note the cleared area for the fort on the Western tip.

Illustration from "History of Iowa From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century"

Black Hawk would write about the construction of the fort decades later in his memoirs

"When we arrived we found that the troops had come to build a fort on Rock Island. This, in our opinion, was a contradiction to what we had done– 'to prepare for war in time of peace.' We did not object, however, to their building their fort on the island, but were very sorry."

Site of Ft. Armstrong Today

Today, the area is set aside as a park of sorts before one crosses the Government Bridge (a.k.a. Arsenal bridge), which connects the island, known today as Arsenal Island, to Davenport, IA and Rock Island, IL.

At the north end of the park, back to the Government Bridge, looking south toward Illinois.

                                                                                                                                                                                             

Cannons rest pointed at the Mississippi adjacent to a replica blockhouse constructed in 1916 to commemorate Fort

Armstrong's centennial anniversary.

Shown here are many of the embrasures and the interlocking corners.

Here are the two cannons that protect the fort today.

Photo of the Westmost cannon (left in above photo) and taken with lower f-stop to
clarify the text on the muzzle which reads, "No. 189  REVERE COPPER 1218 lbs" and "T.J.R. 1863"

Photo of the Eastmost cannon and taken with lower f-stop to 
clarify the text on the muzzle which reads, "No. 324 H.N.H & Co 1239 lbs" and "T.J.R.  1864"
H.N.H. & Co. stands for manufacturer Henry N. Hooper of Boston, MA.

The blockhouse overlooking the Mississippi with the Centennial Bridge in the background.

Also located in this tiny historical plot is a fenced off area containing the graves of two surgeons who
were very important to the people living  in the area at that time.  Each grave is marked with a large boulder.

As the title states, this was the earliest infancy of the Rock Island Arsenal, and also of the entire surrounding Quad Cities area.  Fort Armstrong served an important role in the Black Hawk War and eventually the treaty that ended that conflict was signed there.  It would last a scant 20 years before being abandoned in 1836 - it was no longer needed as an outpost on the edge of the untamed countryside.  It would serve other purposes in later years, but it had already laid the groundwork for a government military installation and as the hub of a thriving community.  Not bad for an area barely larger than a football field. The coming decades would see the little island rise in importance as the location of the first railroad bridge to cross the Mississippi and as a military production facility for the largest conflicts the nation has ever seen.

-Written by Joel R. Kolander



SOURCES:

Eaton, George. Images of America: Rock Island Arsenal. Charleston: Arcadia, 2014. Print.

Slattery, Thomas J. An Illustrated History of the Rock Island Arsenal and Arsenal Island. Vol. I. Rock Island, IL: Historical Office, U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command, 1988. Print.

http://www.blackhawkpark.org/History/Treaty_1804.html