Samuel Colt and the Charter Oak

The Charter Oak, Charles DeWolf Brownell, 1857, oil on Canvas

If asked to talk about the Charter Oak, few Americans aside from Connecticut residents, American history professors, or dedicated Colt collectors would be able to touch on the topic. Yet, despite the recollections of the general public, the Charter Oak remains an enduring symbol of American independence. In a modern-day reference, the recent 1999 Connecticut state quarter recently featured its expansive boughs on its reverse. However, the story of the charter oak long predates Samuel Colt, or even the first white explorers to set foot on this continent.

The Oak

The Charter Oak began its life in the 12th or 13th century in an area populated by various Algonquian tribes. By the early 1600s the first Dutch explorers entered the area, notably Adrian Block who sailed the coast of the Long Island Sound, up what would become the Connecticut River, and up to where it joins the Park River, the current site of Hartford. In a 1614 journal entry (which I am unable to find and directly quote), Block notes a massive tree believed to be the Charter Oak.

By any measure, the tree was truly a giant. Sources state that the tree and branches measured some 70 feet across, while the trunk was said to be 33 feet around or "large enough that 27 persons have stood in the hollow." It's gnarled and gothic branches spread in a way that seems more jaggedly drawn by a child than in anything that could be considered stately. Often photographed in its last years without its foliage, the tree appears grotesque in design, but with its verdant mantle, Samuel Colt gushingly referred to it as the "aged monarch of the forest."

Last known photo of the standing Charter Oak, 1855

Dutchman Block also had much to do with accurately mapping the area, establishing trade with the local native Americans, and before long, Dutch and English settlements began to pop up in the area. In short order, the shared importance of the tree between Native American and European settler would become apparent, when in 1638 George Wyllys, third Governor of Connecticut, bought a parcel of land and was having it prepared to make a dwelling, clearing much of the local vegetation. Now known as Wyllys hill, this lot contained the Charter Oak, and as preparations were being made for the lot, a group of the Suckiag tribe came to Wyllys so that the tree might be spared. Known as their Peace Tree, it is said that local tribes held council meetings under its branches, and even tied their canoes to it during spring floods.

"[The Suckiag] came up to remonstrate against the cutting down of a venerable oak that stood... With the true eloquence of nature, the brown sons of the forest pleaded in behalf of the immemorial tree. 'It has been the guide of our ancestors for centuries' said they, 'as to the time of planting our corn. When the leaves are of the size of a mouse's ear, then is the time to put the seed in the ground.' At their solicitation the tree was permitted to stand, and continued to indicate the time when the earth was ready to receive the seed-corn; a vast legendary tree, that must have begun to show signs of decay a hundred years before that day..."

Whether the tree was saved on behalf of the Native Americans, or because the English feared them, or even because that lot was likely chosen primarily for its beautiful mature trees, is beside the point. The Charter Oak's importance had been imparted to the white man, who would soon give it an importance all his own.

The Charter

By 1639, Connecticut has already written and adopted its own sort of constitution called the Fundamental Orders. It established a government, but made no mention of jolly ol' England or her king. Eventually, John Winthrop ("Winthrop the Younger") decided to make things right, and apply for a charter from the king as so many other colonies had successfully done. Winthrop negotiated a very permissive charter from King Charles II, since both of their fathers ( John Winthrop, 1st Governor of Massachusetts and King Charles I) had been very close. In 1662, the Connecticut Charter was granted and all was well in the newly legitimized colony.

However, once the "Merry Monarch's" reign came to an end upon his death in 1685, his successor and brother, King James II, was not nearly so tolerant. In fact, he hated the liberal charters so much that in 1686 he consolidated several colonies into the "Dominion of New England," and revoked their previously issued charters to impose a firmer rule on the distant land. He tasked Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of the Domain and named him "Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over the Colonies of Massachusettes Bay and New Plymouth, the Provinces of New Hampshire and Maine, and the Narragansett count or King's Province."  You thought your job title was long. Andros apparently felt the need to collect the physical documents from each colony to finalize the revocation and demonstrate his control.

An Act of Rebellion

Andros was an arrogant man who likely loved every bit of his lengthy title. When retrieving the charter from Connecticut, he did this with all the fanfare and pomp one would expect from a power-hungry, vain statesman. A letter was set earlier to announce his arrival, and he later arrived on a handsome gray steed amidst trumpet fanfare and numerous armed red coats. He met with Governor Robert Treat and other politicians at Moses Butler's Tavern on Main Street, on October 26, 1687, with the intention of receiving the treaty. However, Treat refused to give the charter at this time, so the King himself arranged a meeting for the two parties to again meet on October 31 at a local public house.

The story goes that Gov. Treat was well-known to speak at length, and on that Halloween eve, did so until dusk, when two candelabras were brought in to light the room. When a frustrated Andros was finally able to speak, he demanded the charter, and stated that failing to present it would be treason. After all, he was "the King's Governor of all new England and that they in turn were all subjects of the king." Such treason would be punished with a splitting of Connecticut colony and dividing the land  between Massachusetts and New York. These threats were not taken lightly and the armed colonists present were likely making the red coats quite nervous. Governor Treat sent immediately for the charter, with Captain Joseph Wordsworth obliging. In the meantime, loud arguments were made about whether or not the charter should actually be delivered to Andros and his entourage, essentially arguing for rebellion against the king.

Such arguments reached a fever pitch when the treaty was brought into the room inside a locked chest. When it was opened, an older gentleman cited as Andrew Leete, "sprang to his feet to rail against the return of the charter." He was frail and gesturing wildly in a patriotic furor, when he suddenly collapsed sending both candelabras to the ground, extinguished. In a spontaneous act of rebellion, Assemblyman Nathaniel Stanley snatched the charter in the dark and quickly passed it out an open window to Captain Wadsworth, who had just brought the charter from the Wyllys mansion. Apparently not thinking clearly, Wadsworth immediately took off for the mansion again. Upon arriving, Ruth Wyllys, suggested he hide the charter in the great cavity of the huge oak since the troops would be sure to search the house knowing the charter had been kept there earlier. Wadsworth agreed, quickly wrapped the document up in his jacket, and hid it inside a hole in the great oak's trunk.

Aftermath

One can safely surmise that Andros was none too happy about the current turn of events, but he made a great effort not to show it. Instead he issued a proclamation that made good on all his threats, which "took into his hands the Government of this Colony of Connecticut, it being by His Majesty annexed to the Massachusetts and other Colonies under his Excellencies Government," effectively taking charge.

However, he was still forced to return to the King without the charter, and in the eyes of the colonists that meant it had never been nullified, even if Andros did still carry the authority of the King. A bit of a semantic victory perhaps, but a victory none-the-less for the colonists who viewed this as an act of direct defiance against the crown. Also, since they never voted to give Andros the charter, they had only recorded Andros' authority, but had never made a vote of submission. Other versions of the story state that Andros was given a copy of the charter while the original was kept in the Charter Oak, thus symbolically keeping the charter in the hands of the colonists. Most sources acknowledge the existence of three copies of the charter, making Andros' mission more hollow than the trunk of the great oak.

Regardless of how it came to be, Andros' rule was a short one in the colonies. The Glorious Revolution took place in the spring of 1689 resulting in William and Mary assuming the throne, which also coincided with the Boston Revolt, a popular uprising against Andros.  Sources differ on whether the colonists simply reverted back to the charter after Andros left, or whether the colonists petitioned King William to reinstate the 1662 charter. Either way, it remained in effect until 1818 when the Connecticut State Constitution was drafted.

A Giant Falls

Even in 1687, the Charter Oak seemed on its last gasp. The trunk had hollowed out so much from decay at the bottom that even in the time of the Native Americans it is noted that the "vast legendary tree, that must have begun to show signs of decay a hundred years before that day, in the cavity at its base, that was gradually enlarging as one generation after another of red men passed from beneath its shadow." In later years its declining health, which was owed "in part to the neglect which dilapidated fortunes of the family and want of male guardianship" and some terrible inclement weather, more poetically described as "the corroding tooth of time or the sharp violence of the tempest."

On August 21, 1856, nearly two centuries after its shining moment in American history, a great storm passed through the area, and was more than the oak's decayed foundation could bear. The mighty tree, beloved by many a generation, had fallen.

The Hartford community immediately fell into mourning, not least of all Samuel Colt, who was noted to express an "admiration and passionate fondness for old trees," let alone those with local and national historic significance. Many began taking wood and acorns of the old giant before an honor guard was set up to cease it. Colt's Armory Band played dirges at noon: Dead March from Saul, Home Sweet Home, and Hail Columbia. Flags were draped over its trunk and stump, and when dusk fell on the city all the church bells tolled for an hour in a solemn chorus. The Hartford Courant headline the following morning read "The Charter Oak is Prostrate!" and ran the story as an obituary.

Wood of the Charter Oak was instantly in demand from all corners of the country. Large portions were set aside and made into a number of wood carvings and furniture pieces. Most notably, is a large hunk of wood for the state of Connecticut that was carved into an incredible, high backed chair. The "chair of state" was "paid for and is still used today by the lieutenant governor in the state senate chamber. Also famously known is an exquisite cradle made for Samuel  Jarvis Colt, Jr., one of many pieces that was created by wood purchased by Samuel Colt that currently reside at the Wadsworth Athenium Museum of Art. The most lavish of the pieces remains the "Charter Oak Chair," a throne of elaborate wood carving, and a masterpiece by any measure. A depiction carved in relief of the Charter Oak comprises the chair's back. Originally commissioned for use by the mayor, the city balked at the $375 price tag (almost $20,000 today). After nearly a year Colt stepped in to buy the chair above and beyond the cost asked of the city calling it, "cheap at any price."

L to R: The Charter Oak Chair, the Charter Oak "Chair of State," and the cradle made for Sam Jarvis Colt
(end photos credit: Wadsworth Atheneum)

Now we have come to the heart of the matter. Finally knowing the history behind this venerable and beloved tree, we can now know the significance behind the artifacts made with its body. Two such artifacts appear in Rock Island Auction Company's 2016 December Premiere Firearms Auction.

Magnificent Factory Cased Colt New Model Pocket Pistol with Charter Oak Grips

This factory cased Colt Model 1855 Sidehammer revolver was manufactured in 1867 and is fitted with grips made with wood harvested from the Charter Oak. Only eight other Sidehammers and one Model 1849 pocket are known to also wear the wood of the revered tree. The case is made of mahogany, and lined with red velvet.  Well known to collectors, this exact pistol is shown and described in great detail in R.L. Wilson's "Magnificent Colts" on pp. 220-225.  It is truly an incredible rarity in Colt collecting and is certain to find a new home with a deservedly prominent collection.

Historic Presentation Walking Stick Carved Directly from the Famous Connecticut Charter Oak Inscribed to Connecticut Governor’s Horse Guard Major-Commander Henry Boardman, Militia Commander and Adversary of Colonel Samuel Colt

The walking stick presented to Major-Commander Henry Boardman requires we give some background on its recipient. Boardman was a Connecticut militia officer who was appointed as commander of the First Company, Governor's Horse Guards in 1845. The Governor's Guards, specifically the First Company of Foot Guards holds the honor of being the American military formation with the longest period of unbroken and unaltered service, which is noted as gallant in many instances.

A single event put Boardman at odds with Samuel Colt, who was called upon to help revive a local Horse Guard. It had long since fallen dormant, much to the displeasure to local residents. Used largely in ceremony, the First Company of the Governor's Hose Guard had failed to appear for the bicentennial celebration of Hartford (1835), the passing through of Gen. Winfield Scott, and even an appearance of Vice President R.M. Johnson was escorted by every possible military unit in the area except the horse guard. Having been a source of pride for so long in the community, many citizens were disgusted and disappointed in their absence.  So much so, in fact, that in 1853 a group of over 100 young men voted to adopt the charter of the old horse guard. To give credence to this newly revived organization Samuel Colt was invited and gladly accepted the opportunity to be a part of something so flashy, ceremonious, and important to the people. He was also elected as Major Commandant of the new unit, despite not seeking the office.

No doubt it took some time for the members of the newly formed guard to practice, find uniforms for members that were not part of the old horse guard, and so on. This was also more than enough time for Boardman to hear of the new group and to seethe about the fact that this group had been usurped right from underneath him! On May 3, 1854, when the new Horse Guard was making its first appearance to a delighted public, Major Boardman's Horse Guard also showed up for the first time in eight years, surprising everyone who thought the group had died out.

This left two groups claiming to be the First Company, Governor's Horse Guard, and instead of making a decision, the governor passed this dilemma on to the General Assembly. Both sides had arguments in their favor. Boardman stated that he had never disbanded the group, been discharged, nor been notified of any reorganization, feeling the new movements "too fast for him, or not quite courteous enough." Colt also had plenty of ground to stand on, with the prior group not having performed any service for eight years, having no recent membership records, and a lack of interest in its body of members. Eventually Governor Dutton met with the two men to resolve the matter, when in the course of debate Colt snarkily stated, "I felt...that Hartford should have something better than a comatose troop of cavalry and I was willing to do my share in putting some life into it." A remark that brought Boardman to his feet ready to trade blows with his adversary.

Gov. Dutton eventually allowed Boardman's group to continue as the First Company Governor's Horse Guard, with Colt's guard to be recognized as a "Company of Cavalry to be attached to the First Regiment of the First Brigade of the Militia." The scrap breathed a new fire into the belly of the Horse Guard and thereafter they presented themselves in full uniform and full number with a martial band and an enthusiasm long since absent.

This cane, made of solid Charter Oak, was presented to Maj. Boardman on May 4, 1858 by I.W. Stuart, an author, politician, and local historian perhaps most responsible for raising the legend of the Charter Oak to such lofty heights.

(Note: Not related to the Charter Oak, a sword also presented to Major Boardman will also be offered in the sale. Pictured below)

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These items bring their significance to American history, as well as their rarity, to the Rock Island Auction Company 2016 December Premiere Firearms Auction. A Colt sidehammer in this condition alone would be a fantastic find for any collector, but to have Charter Oak grips, and knowing how dear the Charter Oak was to Samuel Colt, puts it in a special realm for Colt collectors. The cane on the other hand, represents a strong opposing force to Colt's life in Hartford. Just as competitors to Colt's M1911 pistol are now strong collectibles, this cane represents a vanquished foe whose name is left in the dusty pages in history. Its rarity and fascinating tale make it an appropriate addition to the most thorough and comprehensive Colt collections.

- Written by Joel R. Kolander







SOURCES:

Barnard, Henry. Armsmear: The Home, the Arm, and the Armory of Samuel Colt: A Memorial. Place of Publication Not Identified: Beinfeld, 1976. Print.

Hosley, William N. Colt: The Making of an American Legend. N.p.: U of Massachusetts, 1996. Print.

Howard, James L. The Origin and Fortunes of Troop B: 1788, Governor's Independent Volunteer Troop of Horse Guards, 1911, Troop B Cavalry, Connecticut National Guard, 1917. Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood & Brainard, 1921. Print.

http://www.charteroakfsc.com/TheCharterOak.pdf

http://www.ctpostalhistory.com/CtPP/Postal_Markings_files/ThomastonCharterOak2016.pdf

Lee, Robert M., R. L. Wilson, Donald E. Zilkha, Michael V. Korda, Vance Fox, Douglas Sandberg, Conor Fitzgerald, and Charles F. Priore. Magnificent Colts: Selections from the Robert M. Lee Collection. 1st ed. Vol. I. Sparks, NV: Yellowstone, 2011. Print.

The Prize for Capturing Geronimo, Part II

It may have been winter in 1885-1886, but George Crook was hot under the collar. As the head of the Department of Arizona, the Apache had made life miserable for the renowned "Indian Hunter." He had placed Geronimo and many of his followers on several reservations at different times, but they never stayed around long enough to permit any sort of lasting peace. Geronimo's latest departure, spurred in part by the U.S. Army's inaction to a deliberately provocative act, was especially embarrassing for Crook, who was now being hounded by Washington thanks to the renewed violence of the Chiricahua Apaches. From May 17, 1885 through January 1886, the band of 35 men, 8 boys, and roughly 100 women and children would move almost at will through deserts, canyons, and land considered impassable by most. They would rob and kill settlers, miners, and ranchers as their needs permitted.  They would assault the towns of Alma, Silver City, Grafton, and Camp Vincent. In their 16 month span of freedom they would kill nearly 100 people in total, mostly civilians. Crook had to stop them, and soon.

Standing in his way was the terrain of the Southwest, an unimaginably difficult and desolate landscape. Not only were there burning sands, towers of rock that stretched into the clear desert sky, steep terrain that descended into canyons and rose into mountains, but also an unbearable heat. These difficulties were further magnified by the method of travel which placed stealth and reconnaissance at a premium over speed. Both the conditions and the methods of travel are best detailed in the journal of a Lieutenant Marion P Maus, First Infantry. He writes on the methods of travel:

"In marching the command it was interesting to notice the methods adopted by our Indians in scouting the country to gain information and prevent surprise. It illustrated to us very clearly what we must expect from the hostiles, who would employ the same methods...Their system of advance guards and flankers was perfect, and as soon as the command went into camp, outposts were at once put out, guarding every approach. All this was done noiselessly and in secret, and without giving a single order. As scouts for a command in time of war they would be ideal. Small of stature, and apparently no match physically for the white man, yet when it came to climbing mountains or making long marches, they were swift and tireless...Nothing escaped their watchful eyes as they marched silently in their moccasined feet. By day small fires were built of dry wood to avoid smoke, and at night they were made in hidden places so as to be invisible. If a high point was in view, you could be sure that a scout had crawled to the summit and, himself unseen, with a glass or his keen eyes had searched the ground around."

To read the first-hand accounts of these men is to understand the importance of the Native American scouts and the clever methods utilized by the Apache to remain at large and undetected. The Apache had thought of everything: limiting campfires, locations of campfires, limiting smoke from said campfires, making camp with excellent observation points, ensuring escape routes, placing lookouts, and so on. Maus details the steps taken:

"The march was now conducted mostly by night. We suffered much from the cold, and the one blanket to each man used when we slept was scanty covering. Often it was impossible to sleep at all. At times we made our coffee and cooked our food in the daytime, choosing points where the light could not be seen, and using dry wood to avoid smoke. Our moccasins were thin and the rocks were hard on the feet. Shoes had been abandoned, as the noise made by them could be heard a long distance. The advance scouts kept far ahead. Several abandoned camps of the hostiles were found, the selection of which showed their constant care. They were placed on high points, to which the hostiles ascended in such a way that it was impossible for them to be seen; while in descending any pursuing party would have to appear in full view of the lookout they always kept in the rear. The labor of the Indian women in bringing the water and wood to these points was no apparent objection."

These conditions, documented as harsh to both the white soldiers and their Native American scouts, seemed to pose no trouble to the fugitive Apaches. They hid in the canyons, using them both as concealment and roadways. They fought only when they were at an advantage and by June, they had made their way to the Sierra Madre in Mexico. Crook formed two parties, led by Captain Emmet Crawford and Captain Wirt Davis, and sent them after the renegades that summer. The two groups of men separately chased Geronimo and his band into the autumn. The unbearable heat reached 120 degrees at times, and the sparseness of water and grass made pursuit impossible if not for the supply trains and pack mules. Assistant-Surgeon Leonard Wood, a member of the military detachment, is quoted as saying,

"During the latter part of June and July it was my good fortune to command the infantry. In the detachment of Companies D and K, 8th Infantry, were men who had served in India and South Africa, and, in their opinion, this was by far the hardest and roughest service they had ever seen. Infantry on this expedition marched in drawers and undershirts. I do not remember seeing a pair of blue trousers put on after once wearing the lighter articles mentioned above."

By September, Geronimo had again headed north toward the U.S. border and reports of murderous raiding parties sent shockwaves of fear through the area. Death and stolen livestock were regular occurrences in both New Mexico and Arizona. One Apache band had been stealing horses and mules at will, ending with over 200 animals at the expense of 38 civilian lives. Apaches back on U.S. soil was not something the Federal Government could abide, and the pressure came down even harder on an already frustrated Crook who again sent out Crawford and Davis. Crawford's party would locate them on January 9, 1886. His Lieutenant, Maus, wrote of the  event,

Geronimo, March 27, 1886. Cropped photo of C.S. Fly's original

"The trail was about six days old, and as we passed over it, here and there, the bodies of dead cattle, only partially used, were found...The difficulties of marching over a country like this by night, where it was necessary to climb over rocks and to descend into deep and dark canyons, can hardly be imagined. When we halted, which we sometimes not until midnight, we were sore and tired. We could never move until late in the day, as it was necessary to examine the country a long distance ahead before we started. At last, after a weary march, at sunset on the 9th of January, 1886, Noche, our Indian sergeant-major and guide, sent word that the hostile camp was located twelve miles away. The command was halted, and as the hostiles were reported camped on a high point, well protected and apparently showing great caution on their part, it was decided to make a night march and attack them at daylight... I cannot easily forget that night's march. All night long we toiled on, feeling our way. It was a dark and moonless night. For much of the distance the way led over solid rock, over mountains, down canyons so dark they seemed bottomless. It was a wonder the scouts could find the trail. Sometimes the descent became so steep that we could not go forward, but would have to wearily climb back and find another way. I marched by poor Captain Crawford, who was badly worn out; often he stopped and leaned heavily on his rifle for support, and again he used it for a cane to assist him. He had, however, an unconquerable will, and kept slowly on...We had marched continuously eighteen hours over a country so difficult that when we reached their camp Geronimo said he felt that he had no longer a place where the white man would not pursue him."

Crawford's company attacked at dawn after an exhausting night march. They might have had the element of surprise were it not for some braying burros that the Apaches allegedly used like guard dogs, and that Maus said, "These watchdogs of an Indian camp are better than were the geese of Rome." Then began a short firefight that echoed through the canyons and resulted in the escape of many of the Apache, however in their haste they had left many of their supplies behind, including meat from both deer and ponies. Shortly after, a Native American woman came to the newly claimed camp to arrange a meeting with Geronimo and Natchez, and to beg for food. They agreed to a meeting the next morning by a river about a mile distant.

After a cold sleepless night, the camp awoke to the alarm calls from the scouts. Maus, Lieutenant Shipp, and Tom Horn all ran to see what had caused ruckus, but all they could see were shapes moving about in the fog.  They thought it might be the scouts from Davis' party, but all at once the camp found itself embroiled in another firefight. Crawford's men hesitated to return fire thinking it might be their own men, and so Crawford frantically yelled for the firing to stop. After 15 minutes or so it was over, and it was discovered that the assailants were Mexicans who thought they were attacking the Apache camp. As the commanders of the Americans and Mexicans approached one another to discuss further action, the Americans noticed their own scouts loading weapons and hiding behind rocks.  This was not lost on the Mexicans whose scouts had also taken a nearby ravine to covertly move to a nearby high point that flanked the Americans. Crawford immediately told the scouts to not fire, as did Major Corredor, the Mexican commander. The tension was palpable, life and death hanging heavily by a gossamer thread.

A crack of a single gun shot rang out, and immediately the surrounding rocks exhaled their smoke as .50 cal Sharps carbines and .44 caliber Remington rifles went about their deadly work. The Mexican Major was felled immediately, and his lieutenant was struck 13 times. Two others hid behind a small tree and were killed when the tree was cut down by gunfire. Maus found shelter immediately behind some rocks, but upon doing so, found Crawford "lying with his head pierced by a ball. His brain was running down his face and some of it lay on the rocks." Struck with grief, Maus still gave orders to scouts to prevent the U.S. troops from being flanked. They eventually repelled the Mexicans, and after two tense meetings the two sides traded aid and stock, and went about their way. Despite his grave wounds, Crawford would not pass away for several more days. With his death, Maus was in command and he met with Geronimo 20 miles into Mexican territory on March 25-27, 1886.

Maus, Horn, an interpreter, and five scouts went unarmed into their meeting per Geronimo's conditions. The next day their chiefs arrived with a few men, fully armed, and within minutes of the meeting, Geronimo asked Maus, "Why did you come here?" Maus answered, "I came to capture or destroy you and your band." Geronimo then rose, slowly walked to Maus, and shook his hand, saying that he could trust the man. After some negotiating, Maus arranged for Geronimo to meet Crook to discuss the terms of surrender. The discussion would take place in Cañon de los Embudos (Skeleton Canyon) in the Sierra Madre. Geronimo eventually surrendered with these exasperated words, "Do with me what you please.  Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you, and that is all." It was during these negotiations that photographer C.S. (Camillus Sidney) Fly would take 15 photographs of the Apache men. Using 8x10 inch glass negatives, they are the only photographs of Geronimo's surrender and the only known photographs taken of Native Americans while still at war with the United States.

C.S. Fly's photo of the well-armed Chiricahuan men captioned, "Scene in Geronimo's camp before surrender to General Crook, March 27, 1886: Group in Natches' camp; boys with rifles."

A photo of Fly's captioned "Geronimo poses with members of his tribe and General George Crook's staff during peace negotiations on March 27, 1886."

Captioned: "Geronimo, Yanozha (Geronimos´s brother-in-law), Chappo (Geronimo´s son by his second wife), and Fun (Yanozha´s half brother) (right to left) in 1886." Photo by C. S. Fly

Captioned: ""Scene in Geronimo's camp...before surrender to General Crook, March 27, 1886: group of 18 men, women and children." Photo by C. S. Fly

Women and children in Geronimo's camp during late March 1886. Shown in the photo is 11-year old Jimmy McKinn, who was abducted by the band. He had been kidnapped in September 1885, and "fiercely resisted" returning to his parents despite the fact that the same Apaches had killed his brother. It was reported in more than one newspaper that he had been "fully Indianized."

Crook sent the following message:

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"Camp el Canon de los Embudos, 20 miles SE of San Bernardino, Mexico
March 26, 1886

Lieutenant-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC

I met the hostiles yesterday at Lieut. Maus' camp, they being located about five hundred yards distant. I found them very independent, and fierce as so many tigers. Knowing what pitiless brutes they are themselves, they mistrust everyone else. After my talk with them it seemed as if it would be impossible to get any hold on them, except on condition that they be allowed to return to their reservation on their old status.

Today things look more favorable.

George E. Crook, Brigadier General

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The following day he sent another message, the first half of which is shown here:

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"Camp el Canon de los Embudos

March 27, 1886

Lieutenant-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC, Confidential

In conference with Geronimo and the other Chiricahuas I told them they must decide at once on unconditional surrender or to fight it out. That in the latter event hostilities should be resumed at once, and the last one of them killed if it took fifty years. I told them to reflect on what they were to do before giving me their answer. The only propositions they would entertain were these three: That they should be sent east for not exceeding two years, taking with them such of their families as so desired, leaving at Apache Nana who is seventy years old and superannuated; or that they should all return to the reservation upon their old status; or else return to the war-path with its attendant horrors.

As I had to act at once I have today accepted their surrender upon the first proposition. Kaetena, the young chief who less than two years ago was the worst Chiricahua of the whole lot, is now perfectly subdued. He is thoroughly reconstructed, has rendered me valuable assistance, and will be of great service in helping to control these Indians in the future..."

George Crook, Brigadier General

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It was only days later that Crook would find out just how unacceptable these terms were back in Washington.  Sheridan wrote:

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Washington DC, March 30, 1886

General George Crook, Fort Bowie, Arizona

You are confidentially informed that your telegram of March 29th is received. The President cannot assent to the surrender of the hostiles on the terms that their imprisonment last for two years, with the understanding of their return to the reservation. He instructs you to enter into negotiations on the terms of their unconditional surrender, only sparing their lives; in the meantime, and on the receipt of this order, you are directed to take every precaution against the escape of the hostiles, which must not be allowed under any circumstances. You must make at once such disposition of your troops as will insure against further hostilities by completing the destruction of the hostiles unless these terms are accepted.

P.H. Sheridan, Lieut.-Gen.

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In other words, "You already have them. If they do not comply, kill them all." What happens next is not exactly known to history, but two theories pervade.

1. Liquor. It is known that on the night two parties agreed to the terms of surrender, there was drinking by the Apache. They caused such a ruckus that Maus heard them and the echoing as they fired their guns into the air. The next day, 28 March, everyone moved camp en route to satisfy the terms of the surrender. That afternoon Maus went into their camp and found more drunken behavior and that Natchez (future chief and 2nd son of Chief Cochise) had shot his wife. With that, Crook had all the nearby mescal available for sale destroyed. There were a few more disturbances, but ultimately things settled down. That night Geronimo, Natchez, and 35-38 others had escaped again and headed for Mexico. All of this is documented in Maus's journal.

The rumor is that a soldier (or rancher) who had sold them the mescal (or whiskey) had told them that they would all be slaughtered the minute they crossed the border. The Chiricahua Apache, already supremely wary, needed no further convincing to escape with their lives.


2. "Take your job and..." Crook had obtained surrender yet again on the 27th, but heard back quickly from President Cleveland and General Sheridan in the telegram shown above that the terms were unacceptable. The answering telegram from Crook reads,

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Fort Bowie, A.T., March 30, 1886
Lieut.-Gen. P.H. Sheridan, Washington, DC

A courier just in from Lieut. Maus reports that during last night Geronimo and Natchez with twenty men and thirteen women left his camp, taking no stock. He states that there was no apparent cause for their leaving. Two dispatches received from him this morning reported everything going on well and the Chiricahuas in good spirits. Chihuahua and twelve men remained behind. Lieut. Maus with his scouts, except enough to take the other prisoners to Bowie, have gone in pursuit.

Geo. Crook, Brigadier-General

---

Did Crook "lose" the Apache because of the response from back East? Crook would never commit treason, but he was well-known to be an advocate for the Native Americans and their fair treatment. Was he refusing to renege on their agreed upon surrender? Was he finally giving the finger to his bosses in Washington? Or was it the really the alcohol and threat of annihilation that sent the Apaches packing?  A follow-up telegram from Sheridan seems to indicate which theory they believed.

---

Washington, DC, March 31, 1886
General George Crook, Fort Bowie, A.T.

Your dispatch of yesterday received. It has occasioned great disappointment. It seems strange that Geronimo and party could have escaped without the knowledge of the scouts.

P.H. Sheridan, Lieut.-General

---

A brief exchange occurred where Crook explained the situation and Sheridan writes back a very backhanded communication giving Crook some very unnecessarily basic strategies to follow and including guilt-inducing phrases like "Geronimo will undoubtedly enter upon other raids of murder and robbery..." It was no secret that Sheridan, at odds with most military minds on the matter, did not approve of Crook's use of Native American scouts, and so Crook, clearly agitated, in a final telegraph after defending his actions yet again, wrote the following:

---

Fort Bowie, A.T., April 1, 1886

Lieut.-General P.H. Sheridan, Washington DC

"...That the operations of the scouts in Mexico have not proven as successful as was hoped, is due to the enormous difficulties they have been compelled to encounter from the nature of the Indians they have been hunting, and the character of the country in which they have operated, and of which persons not thoroughly conversant with both can have no conception. I believe that the plan upon which I have conducted operations is the one most likely to prove successful in the end. It may be, however, that I am too much wedded to my own views in this matter, and as I have spent nearly eight years of the hardest work in my life in this department, I respectfully request that I may now be relieved from its command.

George Crook, Brigadier-General

---

Nelson Appleton Miles during his Civil War service

Sheridan was only too happy to oblige, sending word the very next day to General N.A. Miles that he would be relieving Crook as commander of the Department of Arizona, very much a surprise to Miles. Even though Crook had just quit his job, he still wrote Sheridan in reference to allowing the 80 or so Apache that remained to continue on to their reservation. Sheridan would have none of it. He reasoned that since Geronimo had broken the terms of surrender, he was under no obligation to do anything except to treat the Apache as prisoners and send them to Fort Marion (known today as Castillo de San Marcos in Ft. Lauderdale, FL). Crook was out and Miles was in.  His orders: capture or kill.

Miles had long been in contention with Crook as the country's top Indian Fighter. He had a stellar service record in the Civil War, being wounded three times and earning a Medal of Honor. He was flamboyant, earned the name "Old Bear Coat" because of his fur-trimmed overcoat, and had high aspirations. He even married well, politically speaking, to the daughter of Gen. William T. Sherman, and undoubtedly saw the task before him as another rung in the ladder of promotions that he strove to climb. Miles personally selected Captain Henry Ware Lawton to lead the primary chase, a man imposing in height, a handsome appearance, and who Miles described as "...a man of great energy and endurance." He would need every last bit of it for the task ahead. Lawton was paired with assistant surgeon Leonard Wood and the two became quick friends.

Lawton in the late 1870's.

Miles immediately ordered troops to guard every waterhole and pass known to be used by the Apaches. In a spiteful act, he sent the scouts who had fought so effectively with Crook along with the surrendered Apaches to be exiled in Florida. It had the intended effect; Crook never forgave the man. Miles also set to work the mountains and unrelenting sun that had opposed the pursuing troops for so long by setting up a heliograph system. From the Greek words for "sun" and "write," Heliographs consisted of a system of mirrors mounted on surveying equipment that were then positioned on geographic high points that could flash signals to one another. The messages would then be forwarded on to subsequent outposts and a message could travel a great distance very quickly. One message was recorded to have traveled approximately 700 miles in four hours, and 30 such stations were positioned throughout Arizona and northern Sonora. Whether the Apaches knew their significance or assumed they were some sort of spirit or magic is unknown, but the fact they they avoided those flashing mountain tops is well documented.

Perhaps the most effective tactic used by Miles was the sheer number of men used. Crook had spared no expense, but Miles went overboard. 5,000 troops were summoned, over double the amount used by Crook, 100 mules, 30 packers, and a number of new Native American scouts that sources cite anywhere between 20 and 600 scouts (again supervised by Chief of Scouts Tom Horn). Regardless the exact numbers, it mattered little. Geronimo and his 35-38 Apaches were raiding, killing, and moving unabated. Arizona was in a panic. Like a bad children's game of "telephone" the numbers of his band and the death toll rose each time the stories were retold. By July he had returned to the depths of the Sierra Madre to recuperate, where pursuit would be more difficult.

That whole time Lawton and his men had been in a fruitless chase. Scouting and marching were exhausting in the desert heat, but they soldiered on and seldom gave their quarry a worthwhile rest. Lawton himself lost 40 pounds reducing his robust frame to a slender 190 pounds. Despite the tremendous hardship that lay at the feet of the soldiers, Lawton remained popular with his men. One soldier, Alfred Sims, wrote, "To his men a kinder officer never lived, and the one thing that made him so popular was that he would never send any one to a place where he would not go himself." Several skirmishes between the two forces are recorded in the firsthand account of Major G. W. Baird. He describes the chase as follows,

"The trail was taken up in succession, by twenty-five different commands or detachments, representing four regiments... This vigorous pursuit and the five encounters with different commands convinced the Indians that Arizona afforded them no place of security, and they hurried from its borders to the supposed inaccessible fastnesses of the Sierra Madre in Mexico. Though the contests of forces so small may not merit the name of battle, yet in no battle have the participants incurred greater risks or evinced a higher degree of heroism... Through such a region and with such drafts upon the strength and fortitude of the men this force kept up the pursuit during the intolerable heat of that summer of ‘86, and with such steadfastness and skill that no craft or device of the savages could throw them off the trail or secure to the pursued an hour’s respite. "

In July Lawton's men surprised Geronimo's camp, but only recovered their horses and supplies. Not long after the Apache returned the surprise and killed 5 soldiers in the process. Miles' vision of a quick victory was evaporating in the Arizona sun. To that end, he decided a change in tactic was necessary. His previous command had been, "Commanding officers are expected to continue a pursuit until capture or until they are assured a fresh command is on the trail.” Now he decided that perhaps Crook's tactics had some validity to them after all. On July 13, 1886 he sent 1st Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood to accompany Lawton and obtain Geronimo's surrender. Gatewood had been an aide to Crook, whose experience included West Point and time with the 6th Cavalry. More importantly he spoke some Apache, valued their customs, and was already known to Geronimo, having met with the leader on several prior occasions. This shift from "pursue and capture" to "obtain surrender" initially miffed Lawton who knew the immense efforts he and his men had undertaken, but he eventually accepted the new tactic, perhaps realizing it as the best way to complete the mission at hand.

It was late August when Gatewood, accompanied by two scouts and 25 men, began probing the edges of the Sierra Madre for information on the whereabouts of the Apache. It didn't take long for word to reach him about Apache women being sent into the small Mexican town of Frontéras to buy mescal. The Mexicans were hoping to use the situation to their advantage to trick the band into coming into town to massacre them, but Gatewood had other plans. He, his scouts, and half his men followed one of the Apache women as she returned to their camp. The scouts, far ahead of the rest of the group, were seen and met by a brave to permit them passage. One scout was kept for assurances and the other was sent back saying that Geronimo would meet, but with no troops. Taking the small loophole available, Gatewood proceeded to the meeting but brought along his remaining scout.

Gatewood had brought a healthy supply of tobacco in his saddle bags and before long he was sitting and smoking in part of a large semi-circle that had found itself near the bank of the Bavispe River. Several sources cite Geronimo as setting his rifle down 20 feet away from Gatewood before shaking his hand and sitting in part of the circle. However, he sat so close that Gatewood could easily feel the revolver in Geronimo's coat pocket pressing into his hip. Geronimo, an apt spokesman though not the chief, stated that they were ready for the message from Miles. Gatewood got right to brass tacks.















"Surrender, and you will be sent with your families to Florida, there to await the decision of the President as to your future disposition.  Accept these terms or fight it out to the bitter end."

The Apache were silent a while, and then expressed their desire to be placed back on the reservation and to receive an exemption from further punishment.  Otherwise, Geronimo said, they would continue to fight. Gatewood, being an honest ambassador, said that he could offer nothing more than Miles' proposal and to do so would only serve to worsen the situation. They continued to talk, with Gatewood continuing for impress on the Apache the consequences for each of their potential options. Fighting would bring death. Running now and surrendering later would bring harsher terms. By then it was noon and the meeting stopped for the midday meal. After eating, Geronimo seemingly on the edge of fury, demanded of Gatewood, "Take us to the reservation - or fight!" Nachez calmed the situation, and Gatewood relayed one final piece of news: all the other Chiricahua Apaches had already been moved to Florida.

The effect of the news was immediate. They were shocked,  and had assumed they could still join their families at the reservation. Now there was no hope for such a reunion. Even if they went back to the reservation, they would be with other Apache tribes with whom they were not on good terms. Their fighting spirit deflated, the Chiricahuas spoke privately for a moment, before Geronimo asked him quite earnestly, "We want your advice. Consider yourself not a white man, but one of us; remember all that has been said today and tell us what we should do." Gatewood replied, "Trust General Miles and surrender to him." By then evening had fallen and the Chiricahuas agreed to meet in the morning with their final decision. The news was exactly what Lawton had been hoping to hear. With several stipulations to ensure their safety along the way, Geronimo's band agreed to meet with Miles to discuss surrender. The date was August 25, 1886, and they all left together that day, headed for the U.S. border.

Despite the great importance to all parties involved the meeting almost never happened. The Apaches remained armed, citing the need to protect themselves from Mexican troops until they were safely in the U.S., and from the U.S. troops until a surrender was peaceably reached. The very first day, those concerns were proven well founded when the Apache and their escort were approached by the Mexican commander located in Frontéras and 200 infantry soldiers who were claiming rights to capture the Apache. Lawton spoke with them, while Gatewood took the Apache some 10 miles North to await the results of the matter. After several Mexican demands were declined by both the Apache and the U.S. troops, the Mexicans had to settle to send along a single soldier with the group to ensure that Geronimo was indeed surrendering to the Americans. This was a bold and honorable move on Lawton's part. His men were outnumbered, outgunned, and they were on Mexican soil, but he had given his word as an officer to protect the Apache and he intended to see it through. They traveled through Guadalupe Canyon to the San Bernadino Valley until they reached Skeleton Canyon

That encounter set the tone for a extremely tense trip. Much weighed on the men in charge of this mission. If they failed, the reaction from Washington would be anything but favorable. If they succeeded, certainly promotions and fame awaited. So many before them had failed, how would they succeed?  The end of their journey was so close, but the Apache remained fully armed and had a nasty penchant for escaping into the nearly inaccessible Sierra Madre.  Exacerbating the tension, Miles refused to meet at the appointed time and place for nine days. The Apache grew even more suspicious and wary than usual. Lawton and Gatewood pleaded with them and soothed them over and over again. On several occasions the Chiricahua Apaches asked Gatewood if he would run away with them (sources differ on whether this was to resume a life of raiding, or to continue on toward Ft. Bowie to meet with Miles themselves). Lawton wrote his anxious letters to his wife of his predicament. A rumor reached Geronimo that he would be killed, and they took off, but they were not gone long before Gatewood reached them and assured them of their safety. Finally on September 3, 1886 Miles arrived, only after having been sent Geronimo's brother as a hostage, and met with Gatewood and Lawton.

The very next day, Geronimo and Nachez agreed on the terms of surrender, and by September 8, they were on an eastbound train headed for Florida. The reign in the West was at an end. It had taken over 5,000 white men, 3 years, and two generals, but finally Geronimo and his band of around three dozen had succumbed to the relentless waves of white men from the East crashing into his desert realm.

The Rifle

Lieut. George E. Albe

Upon the surrender, there was much rejoicing on both coasts of the country. The higher ups in Washington and the military had gotten their man and could finally silence those crying out for a resolution. The people of Arizona and New Mexico were also able to breathe a sigh of relief for their safety and the security of their livestock. The news traveled quickly across the country and it would not take long before it reached the ears of Lieutenant George E. Albee.  Lawton and Albee had served together in the Civil War and become life long personal friends, though while the former's service continued until mere days before the 20th century, the latter's ended in 1878 when he retired from the Army. After his duties there, Albee resumed his strong interest in firearms.  He went to work for Winchester Repeating Arms and became a man of some influence there, helping to develop the Hotchkiss rifle and receiving no less than two patents. He also developed a sizable firearms collection and, having been a crack shot since his service in the Civil War, went on to win many shooting competitions.

This dear and close friend of Lawton, presented Lawton with the lever action rifle shown throughout this story, Model 1886, serial number 1.

Perhaps telling that the gift is between two military men, the gun is not bathed in precious metals or covered with elaborate engraving. On the contrary, the gun remains quite handsome in its original configuration, and in near mint condition. The case hardening is vivid and is still abundant even on the buttplate.

Understated for such a historic event, the gun is marked in tribute only by a small inscription behind the rear sight on top of the octagon barrel that reads, "Albee to Lawton." It is a simple, but heartfelt gift for a man who struggled mightily for months, but never at the expense of his dignity, honor, nor duty.

In a letter dated November 1, 1886 and addressed to "My Dear Albee," Lawton speaks of a banquet in his honor in Albuquerque. He did not want to attend, but was ordered to do so by Miles. There Lawton was presented with what he calls, "a handsome and valuable pocket watch," shown below. It was made by E. Howard & Co. in Boston, and is engraved with a message from a grateful people that reads,

Presented to

Capt. H.W. Lawton

4th U.S. Cavalry

By the Cattlemen of Central New Mexico

as a token of their appreciation of his

gallant service in the capture of the 

Apache Indian Chief 

~ Geronimo ~

and his band.

Albuquerque, New Mexico

Sept. 27th, 1886

Lawton was also presented with a watch chain (shown above), every link of which is inscribed with the names of men who accompanied him during the chase of Geronimo. The rifle, the watch, and the chain are all to be sold in a single lot during Rock Island Auction Company's 2016 April Premiere Firearms Auction.

Appearing in the same auction, although in a different lot, is a regal Horstman & Son/Weyerberg sword presented to Lawton. As one can see in the photo above it is an Damascus bladed Officers sword covered in etchings and gold portraying patriotic and floral motifs. The scabbard and furniture are intricately sculpted to match. The center band of the scabbard is inscribed to Lawton and reads, "Lt. Col. Henry W. Lawton/From the Officers and men of the/30th Indiana Infantry Regt. Vol./ February 10, 1865." The tip and upper bands of the scabbard have been inscribed but instead document Lawton's extensive battle record beginning at Shiloh and continuing on through the battle of Nashville. It is another stunning testimony to a man who was clearly beloved by his men regardless of his rank or the conflict in which he fought. He was a man not without his flaws, he battled with alcoholism and his military performance is generally not considered stellar, however author Steven L Ossad best sums him up as such,

"In the end, however, his core strengths as a soldier and a man—a strong personal code of honor, unflinching loyalty to his comrades and they to him, cool personal courage under fire, extraordinary physical endurance, and good will towards his fellow man—overshadowed his flaws. In several notable instances, even those who were once his enemies came to regard him with respect."





-Written by Joel R. Kolander

SOURCES:

Capps, Benjamin. The Old West: The Great Chiefs. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life, 1981. Print.

Lockwood, Frank C. The Apache Indians. New York: MacMillan, 1938. Print.

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Capt_Maus.html

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Crook_Miles.html

http://www.discoverseaz.com/History/Miles_Geronimo.html

http://www.southernnewmexico.com/Articles/People/Geronimossurrender-Skelet.html

Ossad, Steven L. "Henry Ware Lawton: Flawed Giant and Hero of Four Wars." Army History Winter 2007: 4-25. Web. <http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/resmat/civil_war/articles/article_from_AH63w.pdf>

Rock Island Arsenal: Origin

The Rock Island Arsenal has long been a seat of the locale known as the Quad Cities Area.  Those few acres of land, nestled in the topographical ribbon that is the Mississippi River, bear the origin of the area's settlement and are literally at the center of the community to this day.  However there were more than a few players vying for the vast tracts of land that surrounded this geographical speck.  The first of course were the Native Americans.

The Sauk (also Sac) and Meskwaki (also "Fox") tribes were prevalent in the area, and a large Sauk village was located just five miles downstream of the island, right where the Rock River finally spills into the Mississippi.  Sauk leader Black Hawk fondly recounts the island as a summer hotspot for both tribes.

"It was our garden, like the white people have near their big villages, which supplied us with strawberries, blackberries, gooseberries, plums, apples, and nuts of different kinds.  Being situated at the foot of the rapids, its waters supplied us with the finest fish.  In my early life I spent many happy days on this island.  A good spirit had charge of it, which lived in a cave in the rocks immediately under the place where the fort now stands.  This guardian spirit has often been seen by our people.  It was white, with large wings like a swan's, but ten times larger."

"Sauk & Meskwaki Indians" by Karl Bodmer

History on the Mississippi

Unfortunately, the land would soon be viewed as important by many different nationalities and for numerous reasons.  The first mentions of the island predate the American Revolution and describe a "big island" at the bend of the Mississippi past the "upper rapids."  This was found in documents from French and French-Canadian traders, who were the first in the area seeking to earn their riches trading furs and seeking the easiest route with which to do so.  Also called "voyageurs," they would travel in "North Canoes" that measured up to 20 feet in length and could carry upwards of a ton of cargo in addition to the eight men required to propel and steer such a vessel.

By 1763, France had been pushed out of the region thanks to the French & Indian War, one of many early conflicts in American history that remains covered in a thick layer of dust.  Those results brought in a new trading partner, the British, though some French remained behind and continued to make their living with the victors.  The local tribes didn't seem to care so long as the trading remained good and their European partners kept providing them with the customary gifts that often accompanied trades to grease the wheels of good relations.  As the name of the previous conflict suggests, Native Americans took sides in more than a few conflicts between European nations.

"Voyageur canoe" by Frances Anne Hopkins -  Licensed under Public Domain

By 1783 the American Revolution was over and the Treaty of Paris had been signed, ceding massive areas of land from the British to the newly founded United States of America.  Known as the Northwest Territory, it included the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota. Much like the defeated French in the previous decade the British couldn't quite give up their profitable trade with the Native Americans.  In fact, they outright refused.  From Canada they continued business on a much larger scale than the vanquished French, all the while undermining their American competition.  As if that weren't enough, they also began to provide arms and ammunition to local tribes who began to organize in order to halt the steady Westward flow of white settlers.  Battles took place, as they would countless times in the century to follow, but it mattered little.  There was no stopping Manifest Destiny.  Even if the Native Americans tried to settle peacefully with the government, a treaty would be drawn up to establish lines that ultimately involved Native Americans sacrificing some of their homeland.  It would last until settlers pushed past those boundaries, a new treaty would be drawn up, and the leapfrogging boundaries would continue to push the Native Americans out of any land they ever knew as home.

Boiling Point

In 1800, Spain quietly "gave" back to France 828,000 square miles of land with more than a little coersion applied by Napoleon Bonaparte, who had visions of extending his empire to the new continent.  President Thomas Jefferson, alarmed at the prospect, began to acquire as much land as possible to help thwart the efforts of the "Little Corporal."  To hedge those efforts he even began secret negotiations with France to purchase the land recently ceded to them by Spain.  Treaty after treaty was being signed with various tribes of Native Americans and each one added to the mass of the rapidly growing nation.  Napoleon, in an effort to raise some much needed finance, eventually sold the desired land to Jefferson in 1803 in the famous "Louisiana Purchase."  The lone holdouts in this string of successes were the Sauk and Fox tribes.  Not only were they not interested in selling their land, they wouldn't even attend meetings with the whites.  Jefferson viewed their land as essential since it included the Mississippi River from Prairie du Chien, WI all the way down to St. Louis.  Something had to give.

The Louisiana Purchase ensured that the "Mighty Mississip" was no longer the westernmost border of the United States; now it was an important artery of transportation for trade and travelers alike.  Americans officially owned the land as of March 10, 1804 and that created some tricky political situations for the Native Americans.  In September of that year, things got even trickier when Sauk hunters killed three white men who had settled illegally on tribal land.  It was the worst possible action for the two tribes.  The deaths panicked the whites, who were now demanding protection from the government, and also struck the fear of retaliation into their own people, who were forced to abandon their southern-most villages and move north of the Des Moines River.

William H. Harrison by Remington Peale

Earlier that year, President Thomas Jefferson had charged Indiana Governor (and future 9th U.S. President) William Henry Harrison with acquiring as much land as possible.  Harrison was infamously well-suited to his task using almost any means necessary to procure new territory: liquor, threats, bribery, and broken promises were his tools of the trade.  The killing of white settlers by the Sauk put the tribe exactly where he wanted them.  It forced them to the bargaining table and put him in a position of strength.  Before he could act on his new bargaining chip, two Sauk village chiefs came to St. Louis to publicly condemn the killings.  They didn't want a few bad apples to spoil the relations of the many.  It isn't mentioned if the Americans accepted the apology, but their demands to present the murderers certainly are.  Shortly after returning to their villages with the demands of the Americans, Harrison sent falsely urgent messages to each tribe stating that if they didn't bring the murderers to St. Louis, he feared retaliation against the tribes.  He then traveled to St. Louis to meet with many other tribes, bestowing them gifts.  As if that weren't Machiavellian enough, he then lavished the rival tribe of the Osage with an even more impressive selection of gifts plus offers of friendship and protection.  In just under a fortnight, five leaders (minor chiefs) of the tribes, four Sauk and one Fox, brought one of the killers to St. Louis along with compensation for the victims' families, a common practice known as "covering the dead."  Pay the families of the dead, and if the payment is accepted, no revenge could be sought.  They were also there to make friends with the Americans and to arrange an alliance that might help protect them from the Osage.

Treaty of 1804: The Devious Deal

Harrison quickly reverted to his tried and true tactics.  He got the tribal delegates drunk, asked for land, and made promises of friendship and protection by the Americans as well as sweeping these unpleasant murders under the rug.  The shifty governor knew that the men present had no authority to make such an agreement.  A process was in place for such arrangements that involved much formality, in addition to feedback and participation from the tribes.  This was the equivalent of a back-alley fleecing.  When it was all said and done the Treaty of 1804 sold a massive plot of 52 million acres to the Americans, including both Sauk villages on the Rock River as well as the island known by then as Rock Island.  For this, the Native Americans would receive $2,234.50 in goods, annual payments of $1,000 in goods, an American to teach them how to farm, and the release of the prisoner brought to St. Louis.  If that doesn't sound like enough of a swindle on a massive scale, Harrison had only just begun.

Map of the territory acquired from the Sauk and Fox in the Treaty of 1804
 as prepared by Ernest Royce. In Wisconsin, the acquisition stopped
 at the Wisconsin River. Map by Karen Everingham.

The minor chiefs who had made the agreement were not unfamiliar with alcohol.  They had been trading with Europeans for over a century, after all.  However, it was a European custom to provide gifts during a trade to keep relations smooth.  Knowing this, the delegates may have thought the alcohol a gift from their "American father."  They must have been sorely surprised when the $2,234 they were to receive as payment for their lands was instead given to a well-to-do French trader as payment for expenses incurred.  The Frenchman, Pierre Chouteau, also served as witness to the signed treaty.  In a final insult, the freed Sauk prisoner was shot down while running from his captors.  Despite being skilled and friendly negotiators with the Europeans, the two tribes were double-crossed in every way imaginable by Harrison.  It was the beginning of some very bad blood and sowed the seeds for what would become the Black Hawk War.

Rise of Rock Island

Zebulon Pike

The Treaty of 1804 brought the fabulously named Lieutenant Zebulon Pike (after whom Pike's Peak is named) to Rock Island in 1805.  His expedition was charged with, among other things, gathering information about the river and to seek the best possible strategic locations for forts to help tame the newly acquired territory.  By 1809, Congress has passed legislation to set aside Rock Island as one of the sites for a federal military installation.  Needless to say that Pike's presence was not welcome on the "big island," as he called it, nor was that of any white man.  The Sauk and Fox had warred with many other tribes to establish their lands.  They were tremendous warriors and while they didn't engage in guerrilla warfare or raids against the whites, it wouldn't take long for them to find their opportunity for vengeance.

The War of 1812

Without going too much into the War of 1812 and what it meant for America, the Sauk and Fox saw it as an opportunity to fight against the Americans.  Allegedly, in an attempt to honor the scandalous Treaty of 1804, the Sauk warrior Black Hawk offered the tribe's allegiance at Fort Madison, but was refused.  This, combined with the Americans refusal to offer them credit, a privilege commonly offered by Europeans, made the Sauk more than receptive when the British came to trade.  Credit was extremely important to the Native Americans in order to purchase vital winter supplies.  For their kindness, the British sent a secret message to Black Hawk urging him to gather a war party and meet the British in Green Bay.  Throughout the War of 1812 the two were allies who supported one another while the Sauk and Fox also harassed targets of opportunity.  The Sauk and Fox, led by Black Hawk, enjoyed victories at islands both south (Credit Island) and north (Campbells Island) of Rock Island.  Even after the war, loyalty to Britain among their allied Native American tribes remained high.

An editorial cartoon encouraging Americans to fight

The recent absence of the defeated British and their forts, plus the continuing hostilities with Native Americans gave the Americans great incentive to locate forts at strategic points.  In 1816, 11 years after Pike had set foot there, Fort Armstrong was established on Rock Island.  It provided an important checkpoint in the Mississippi River, and was able to keep the military close to the problematic Sauk and Fox tribes, who were still angry at the Treaty of 1804 and its consequences.  It was the first permanent settlement in the area and because of the safety it provided, also allowed a hub of commerce and economy to gain a foothold.  The surnames of those earliest businessmen still dot the map today as local towns such as Davenport and LeClaire.  The fort also sent a signal to the French, English, & Canadians to remind them that this was now American soil, no matter how recently it became so.

Fort Armstrong

This model of Fort Armstrong is currently on display at the local Putnam Museum.

The fort was situated at the west tip of Rock Island giving it a superior ability to monitor each channel of the Mississippi River that swept around it.  Fort Armstrong, being on the very edge of the island, only required that the 8th U.S. Infantry build two walls to cordon off the area, which were partly formed by the forts barracks, blockhouses, and storehouses.  The 30-foot natural limestone bluffs that were the western bank of the island were considered an adequate deterrent to anyone wishing to assault the fort from that direction.

This map of the fort is in the same display as the above model at the Putnam Museum and lists out the different buildings.

The fort's construction, save for the limestone cliff, was fairly standard construction for the time.  The blockhouses used interlocking square timbers peppered with a more than adequate number of embrasures so that muskets could be fired by inhabitants and attackers outside the buildings.  The second stories of the blockhouses were also constructed at a diagonal to the first story to eliminate "blind spots" in the fields of fire of the occupants.  This is very similar to Spanish forts or castles which often used angled bastions to allow their cannons interlocking fields of fire.  It turns out that comparisons of Fort Armstrong to castles is not completely unfounded, as is relayed in a 1932 article from The Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society that quotes one of Illinois Governor Thomas Ford describing the fort as such,

"Rock Island, was then in a complete state of nature, a romantic wilderness.  Fort Armstrong was built upon a rocky cliff on the lower point of an island, near the center of the river... (a traveler) on the voyage upstream after several days solitary progress through a wilderness country...came suddenly in sight of the whitewashed walls and towers of the fort, perched upon a rock , surrounded by the grandeur and beauty of nature, which at a distance gave it the appearance of one of those enchanted castles... so well described in the Arabian Nights Entertainments!"

1819 map of Rock Island.  Note the cleared area for the fort on the Western tip.

Illustration from "History of Iowa From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century"

Black Hawk would write about the construction of the fort decades later in his memoirs

"When we arrived we found that the troops had come to build a fort on Rock Island. This, in our opinion, was a contradiction to what we had done– 'to prepare for war in time of peace.' We did not object, however, to their building their fort on the island, but were very sorry."

Site of Ft. Armstrong Today

Today, the area is set aside as a park of sorts before one crosses the Government Bridge (a.k.a. Arsenal bridge), which connects the island, known today as Arsenal Island, to Davenport, IA and Rock Island, IL.

At the north end of the park, back to the Government Bridge, looking south toward Illinois.

                                                                                                                                                                                             

Cannons rest pointed at the Mississippi adjacent to a replica blockhouse constructed in 1916 to commemorate Fort

Armstrong's centennial anniversary.

Shown here are many of the embrasures and the interlocking corners.

Here are the two cannons that protect the fort today.

Photo of the Westmost cannon (left in above photo) and taken with lower f-stop to
clarify the text on the muzzle which reads, "No. 189  REVERE COPPER 1218 lbs" and "T.J.R. 1863"

Photo of the Eastmost cannon and taken with lower f-stop to 
clarify the text on the muzzle which reads, "No. 324 H.N.H & Co 1239 lbs" and "T.J.R.  1864"
H.N.H. & Co. stands for manufacturer Henry N. Hooper of Boston, MA.

The blockhouse overlooking the Mississippi with the Centennial Bridge in the background.

Also located in this tiny historical plot is a fenced off area containing the graves of two surgeons who
were very important to the people living  in the area at that time.  Each grave is marked with a large boulder.

As the title states, this was the earliest infancy of the Rock Island Arsenal, and also of the entire surrounding Quad Cities area.  Fort Armstrong served an important role in the Black Hawk War and eventually the treaty that ended that conflict was signed there.  It would last a scant 20 years before being abandoned in 1836 - it was no longer needed as an outpost on the edge of the untamed countryside.  It would serve other purposes in later years, but it had already laid the groundwork for a government military installation and as the hub of a thriving community.  Not bad for an area barely larger than a football field. The coming decades would see the little island rise in importance as the location of the first railroad bridge to cross the Mississippi and as a military production facility for the largest conflicts the nation has ever seen.

-Written by Joel R. Kolander



SOURCES:

Eaton, George. Images of America: Rock Island Arsenal. Charleston: Arcadia, 2014. Print.

Slattery, Thomas J. An Illustrated History of the Rock Island Arsenal and Arsenal Island. Vol. I. Rock Island, IL: Historical Office, U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command, 1988. Print.

http://www.blackhawkpark.org/History/Treaty_1804.html